History and evolution of the scientific thought (página 5)

The hypothesis is a provisional truth and never definitive. Actually, the science quite can be considered, ultimately, as one continues hypothesis capable of happening and of there being corrected (a wide sense of the term hypothesis). Nevertheless, in the process of the science, it is necessary to distinguish between hypothesis, law and theory.

The hypothesis has provisional character; but it can be purifying and to fit up to turning into a law and later into a scientific theory, which has being a more finished explanation of a set of phenomena, and in turn, being able to include several laws.

When a hypothesis is verified, he acquires the character of law that can be defined as that "constant and necessary relation between certain facts" as it happens, for example, with the laws of Newton's movement.

It is clear that before these laws become verified, Newton formulated hypotheses in which it was presuming what had to happen, and which he remained confirmed on having done the experiments.

The scientific investigation, it does not remain with the external aspects of the processes or problems, but it tries to discover the essential elements that explain these empirical hypotheses, which only can be realized raising theoretical hypotheses that, for the same, are more general and in which those fundamental relations stand out between the phenomena.

Since it has been seen, the descriptive problem refers fundamentally to the declarations or external aspects of the processes and structures and the hypothesis that he tries to answer to this type of problems can link two or more variables, but, this is not sufficient to determine his causes.

8.9. Objectives laws and scientific laws The changes and the transformations to which the existing processes are subject are regulated by certain constant relations to whom we name laws. The laws objectives constitute this way the general forms of the relations of change and represent the internal and necessary connections in which there takes place the change of the processes and of his properties.

Therefore, in the laws there is made clear the only thing that is invariable inside the flow it continued of changes and transformations, that is the relation of his change. This way we have that the behaviour of the processes is regulated according to laws and, that's why same, the laws exhibit the regularity of the universe.

Certainly, the laws objectives, they apply independently of our will or our conscience, because they are inherent in the nature and the society.

Now then, when the man manages to discover a law objective, it expresses it in the form of a scientific law. Consequently, the scientific law is a rational reconstruction that it reflects to the law objective. The above mentioned reconstruction is improved by the advance of the knowledge, approximately increasingly to the law objective corresponding, but without it could never go so far as to coincide completely with her. Once established, the scientific law expresses a necessary relation that is fulfilled in certain conditions and which effects demonstrate in certain actions that take place in the processes. We must understand that, the behaviour of the processes is not determined by the laws, but simply regulated by them. This way, the man transforms the effects of a law changing the conditions of the affected processes.

For his part, the scientific laws do not determine to the processes, but they constitute the rules of his determination. This is, that the scientific law does not express what will happen in a certain process, but what will happen when they are fulfilled such and which conditions. In this sense, the scientific laws redeem the function to predict the unknown thing, with base in the well-known thing. Equally, the scientific laws serve as instruments of the subsequent investigations and, meanwhile they fulfill this function, are constituted in integral parts of the scientific method.

In any case, the scientific laws allow to explain the behaviour of the processes, when the conditions of his fulfillment are known. In other words, the scientific laws serve us to answer the principal questions of the science, or, what, where, when, how and why of the existing processes.

Function of the Law Since the laws are formulated once the cross-check has done and they express constant relations between the phenomena, his principal function is to explain a fact with base in the relation that this one keeps with other.

A singular fact is explained by means of a law, to the effect that such a fact is a particular case of her; it is deduced of her. In other words, a singular fact is an interpretation of a scheme of law or it formulates legaliforme and, therefore, any formula legaliforme can receive a multitude of interpretations, since it specifies a class of possible facts.

The laws are discovered (they are not invented) and show us a relation that happens in the reality, this is, they are schemes targets. The formulae on the other hand, they are constructed but not arbitrarily but expressing these schemes targets.

Recounted to the facts, a formula legaliforme has a limited mastery of validity, beyond which it turns out to be false.

Examples:

> An impossible movement for a plane that flies at uniform speed.

> A possible movement for the same object.

This means that, although the trajectory is logically possible A, physically it is impossible; which limits the mastery of validity of the formula.

The laws condense our knowledge of the current thing (what is) and what (what can be), and thanks to this they allow us to predict what will happen with a certain phenomenon that has the necessary characteristics to be an element of the relation expressed by the formula.

Summing the previous thing up, it is possible to say that, the functions of the law are the proper ones of the scientific knowledge: to explain and to predict the course of the phenomena or facts that happen in the nature and in the society.

Two classes of Law exist Since the formula is the reflex of the reality objective, while more nearby he is to this reality, and better it should express it, in the measurement in which faithfully it should reflect her, it will be considered to be a deeper law or, to say it with technical language, will be considered to be a Law of high level (axiom or postulate). Since the science takes the objectivity as a goal, he must aspire to laws of high level, to formulae legaliformes that do not depend on the circumstances.

On the other hand the laws of low level (theorems) limit themselves to the frame of reference; that is to say, they are formulated according to the circumstances in which there happens the phenomenon that is the element of the relation. Although they are laws of low level and his scope is limited, they fit in a scientific system and stem from laws of high level, on which they are based.

As conclusion, it is possible to say that, the concept of law can mean the following thing: o Scheme target.

o It formulates (function proposicional) that tries to reproduce a scheme target.

o Formula that it recounts (or it relates) to a scheme target with experience.

o Metastatement (statement of another statement) that refers to a statement legaliforme.

o Rule based on a statement legaliforme.

Finally, since already it has been said that, any fact expires with a set of laws or, if it is preferred, that quite made he might explain oneself by means of a set of formulae legaliformes and, of course, across a set of empirical information, of that time, more than a free law, there is needed a system (chaining, cohesion) of laws to explain a fact. Also it is possible to add that, a system of laws constitutes what is called a "theory ".

Principal target Will it have to describe and define the principal target and final goal (the material and formal cause) of the investigation? It is important to develop the aptitude to arrange the ideas and the obtained information; and this way to tune in and to relate a few information to others, giving sense to him coherent and forms, which is translated in significant information for the investigation.

Will it have to describe and define the specific targets of the investigation? We must achieve that the investigation has or at least it is provided with the following information:

ü A structure interns or body of the investigation.

ü Your arranging of the information of coherent and systematical form.

ü And his connection and relation of the elements that integrate it, can be provided with relations between if.

Must we know that type of investigation will be? What will be the method that was sustaining the above mentioned investigation? To define appropriately the methodology of the investigation To define the theoretical body with some Theory (s) that identifies or several theories that they allow to identify and to define the object of study? With base in the different "types of ideas" to which one has alluded, the following suggestions do for his application.

General idea: Qualifications or general paragraphs … Principal idea: Qualifications of questions or important ideas … Secondary idea: Parts of a paragraph, classifications … Details: Parts of the parts … TIMETABLE It is the paragraph of the design of the investigation prepared by whom it will have to realize the investigation, and in the one that indicates to himself the different stages of achievement of the project as regards the dear times.

To the timetable he is met also like: I chart of Gantt or Calendar of Activities; be which will be the name, the most important thing is that in him there remain registered all the activities of the investigation and the time estimated to realize each of them, must be placed in a logical order, in accordance with the process and the requests of the proper investigation.

8.10. Compilation of the information It is essential on having made investigation know how to locate the works previous relative to the area of investigation of his interest, for that he must know:

1. The sources of information that contain the previous works or information about them.

2. The organisms that they generate compile or organize this type of information.

3. The form in which it is possible to have access to this information.

4. The corresponding procedures to obtain it, so much in the fatherland as abroad; the time that would be late in having it in his hands and, 5. Approximate cost of the most immediate services to obtain the information.

Skills and instruments In general many people lose a lot of his valuable time in the bibliographical search and in the compilation of pertinent information, this can owe to the absence of mastery of skills of documentary investigation: handling of convalescent information, record of information, and lacks in the reading skills, between others. While this is a part of the process of the investigation of supreme importance, which helps to give sustenance to the content and to the stages of the above mentioned process Skills of documentary investigation The skills of documentary investigation, they centre his principal function on all those procedures that bear the ideal and rational use of the documentary available resources in the functions of information.

Of between the most common cards the principal ones are described and exemplified:

> Bibliographical Card (book).

> Card Hemerográfica (I articulate of magazine, periodic).

> Card Audiográfica (sonorous material).

> Card Video graphic (material of video).

> Card of Electronic Information (information extracted from electronic means, for example Internet.) Skills of field investigation After having established it with all precision (s) hypothesis and having defined the variables operationally, by means of diverse resources of compilation of information and with base in the type of investigation, (confirmatory, experimental, etc.), one is in the moment itself to define the Skill of investigation of corresponding field, this is, to develop the type of instruments ex-I profess, as well as the form and conditions in which the information necessary for every case will have to be gathered.

Then, to design the suitable instrument and to establish the form and conditions in which the information was getting up, it is an activity for others the most important that needs from all the attention, they cannot be mistaken in such activity, because as he says commonly: " The errors cost, time and money "; that is to say, we must foresee the consequences that would exist in case of being wrong in the election of the instrument and in his structure, since the type of awaited information, and the times of his application must be needed to measure the behaviour of the variables, and consequently to be able to prove the hypothesis.

Observation

The observation is a stage of the process of scientific investigation that re-dresses big importance by means of his process, apart from is a major approach in order to study, one is in the moment to take of him, information that are the essential base to quantify and to qualify to this object of study of a scientific way. Observing is to warn the facts such and since they present us to him in the reality of a natural and spontaneous way; as procedure we have to of her knowing about the following way: " I process by means of which deliberately certain existing features are perceived in the reality by means of a conceptual scheme previous, and with base in certain intentions defined generally by a conjecture on which it is needed to investigate something regarding the observable object".

In the above mentioned process of knowledge it breaks of the relation subject – object, where the doubts of the subject are going to be the starting point to investigate about the object. More of this first process, very little or almost not at all it might say of the object, so only we were remaining in the merely contemplative plane, we must go further away and investigate why, how and when a phenomenon is caused, what are the causes and his origin, what elements compose, if his behaviour is sporadic or systematical, these and other questions are those that will allow us to find solutions to problems that for his applicability they would contribute to the process of the humanity.

When the researcher defines his object of knowledge, it is because it already has the intention of knowing something more about him, and when he has already analyzed it is in conditions to say something more about his behaviour.

The observation is the fundamental method of securing of information of the reality (exterior and physical world), everyone it consists of obtaining information by means of the deliberate and selective, illustrated and interpretive perception of an object or of a phenomenon or certain fact.

The procedure of reception of information by means of questions has predominance in the social sciences, because it re-collects her of information it is realized in an interrogative way, more commonly by means of the interview that is the form in which it is possible to be known in a way more direct than it is necessary to know of the subject.

8.13.2. He interviews The interview is the practice that allows the investigator to obtain information first hand. The interview can be carried out in direct form, for telephone route, sending questionnaires by mail or in meetings groups.

Personal interview This one can be defined as an interview every to face, where the interviewer asks the interviewee and receives from this one the pertinent responses to the hypotheses of the investigation. The questions and his sequence will mark the grade of structure of the questionnaire, object of the interview.

The personal interview has the advantage of which the interviewer can direct the behaviour of the interviewee, which will allow him to obtain better interview, that those who do by mail or telephone route.

The personal interview has both advantages and disadvantages in his application. One of his advantages is the depth and the detail of the information that it is possible to obtain. Another advantage is that the interviewer has a major control on the interviewee (if it has the skill) with regard to other methods, in addition to which it is possible to extend or to clarify the question.

With regard to the disadvantages, two principal ones can distinguish oneself: the cost for interview and that is frequent to meet interviewees who are not desirable to treat very much with strangers, especially when they raise questions of personal type.

Questionnaire One of the instruments most used for the compilation of information, it is the questionnaire; his validity and structure is going to depend on the capacity and skills of the investigator. The content of the questions invariably will have to be related to the hypothesis, or that, the questions will have to be focused towards the key points, that once the responses are spilt, these contain the information directly related to the hypothesis, but especially, that once codified and interpreted, they allow to confirm or to refute the hypothesis.

But: what is the procedural function of the questionnaire inside the process of the investigation? To give response to this question, it is necessary to have present in the first instance that up to this moment of the investigation, had not been contacted by the reality, because the whole process had been come developing in a strictly theoretical plane and that it is up to the moment in which the questionnaire is structured, when the concepts "are" "translated" to contact the reality, to take of her the necessary information.

Every investigation needs from a "dressmaking to the measurement" of your own questionnaire; the type of questions will be according to the nature itself of the type of investigation, of the problem to resolve and the level of certainty that is claimed, by it, on having prepared the questionnaire, aspects must be born in mind, both of form and of fund, for it, at once there appear multiple questions that they can contribute to his best structure.

> Was every question derived from the variables established in the hypothesis?

v Did he structure to the beginning of the questionnaire a brief satisfactory explanation, directed to polled explaining the intentions of the same one?

> Did it realize a preliminary test of the questionnaire (pretest) to value his level of reliability?

v Did there consider any guy of scale that should allow him to measure the level of attitude that is wished?

v Do alternative responses admit the questions into sufficient quantity as so that the polled one could express oneself freely, but simultaneously exactly?

v Are the questions simple, brief and written in a language understandable and devoid of unnecessary technolism?

> Are there included questions that for his premeditation they could irritate or offend the polled one?

> Are the first questions of the questionnaire the conductive thread for the remaining questions?

> Are the questions arranged and grouped so that they attract the attention and neutralize the resistance?

> To the beginning of every block of questions, do the instructions corresponding to this block express themselves with clarity?

> Is the questionnaire structured in a such way that facilitates the codification of the responses?

> Are each and everyone of the questions necessary?

v Was each of the questions defined exactly, so that the possible responses generate the type of information that is looked?

> Do the questions cover completely the fundamental aspects of the investigation?

> Might the questions to generate responses, of which the polled one could not answer for not having the required and necessary information?

> Is it needed that the questions it is more concrete as to obtain precise and clear responses? It climbs For scale we understand a system of graduation that represents the principal characteristic of the variable that we want to measure, for example: a scale of noise that serves to measure the grade of tolerance that a worker supports in the factory.

Since in the process of investigation the statistical part is tackled and occurs with sets, in general these possess a certain number of units, these units in turn have certain characteristics that it is necessary: to count, assorting or to measure.

Four levels of measurement exist (you climb):

1. Nominal or classificatory.

2. Ordinal.

3. Of interval.

4. Of Reason.

The nominal scale is that one that uses number as "letterheads ", with the purpose of characterizing or of codifying something to facilitate his handling. In this case the order does not have any meaning.

The ordinal scale is the one that serves to order in categories corresponding to the value that acquires the variable (s) that it is considered.

The scale of interval is characterized by his representation across a unit of measurement. An important feature is that in this type of scale the difference proportionality is the same for several scales. Also the order always has a specific meaning.

The scale of reason is that one that represents a proportion or reason of the quantity considered as unit model of the measurement (arbitrarily established). In this scale the order has a meaning.

Test and pretest Both are instruments destined for the securing of information. His denomination is more usual in the sciences of the behaviour. The test (test Psicométrica) has his equivalent one in other areas of the knowledge with a questionnaire, or, that also applies himself with the purpose of obtaining by means of this one the pertinent information. The pretest (pretest) there will correspond to the test pilot, who applies herself for a sector of the sample (between 15 % and 20 %), to modify the items that will have to allow to measure of a better form the components of the variables.

He polls The poll is an interrogative process that farm his scientific value in the rules of his procedure, uses him to know what the people think about a situation or problem that involves it, and since the only way of knowing it, it is asking, then there are proceeded to poll to who it involves, but when it is a question of a very numerous population, only this one is applied to him to a subcommittee, and here the important thing is in being able to choose the persons who will be polled so that the population is represented that will be polled so that the whole population this one represented in the sample; another point of considering and of treating carefully, they are the questions that will be given them.

The type of information that is gathered by this way in general corresponds to: opinions, attitudes and credence, etc.; therefore, it is a question of an opinion poll of opinion. Only when the governmental entities need from the opinion of the whole population, they come to the referendum or to the raising of a census.

8.13.8. Field newspaper This one arranged captures his name of the act of extracting in a systematical and controlled way the information of the reality, as they happen. This activity centres on the stage of field investigation; his value consequently owes to the fact of allowing the investigator to be the mediating only one between the behaviour of the phenomenon and the information that are gathered.

His structure will be according to the number of necessary remarks, as well as of the type of facts or acts to observe, established to priori, and of the conditions in which the information will take.

In the natural sciences and in the applied sciences the precision with which the information must be gathered needs even from the support of precision instruments, while in the science social there are different the conditions that are needed, not less important or lacking in scientific value; for example, to observe the behaviour that a group of children presents the first day from his revenue to a nursery school, it will be foreseen that the ambientación is the same for all the children, and that she is his mom who delivers them to the babysitter.

Open questionnaire (across him the information will be obtained) 1. What aspects have influence and prevail in the conduct of the teacher and the student? 2. How to be useful and to direct the intellectual and emotional capacities in the student? 3. What activities allow and encourage the development of the intellectual and emotional capacities in the student? 4. What activities do the reason and the conscience allow and develop in the student? 5. How can it develop and make suitable use the student of the perception and of the intuition? 6. What activities do they allow to develop and to encourage the curiosity for the reason and the state of conscience in the student? 7. What activities do they help to develop and strengthen the use of the perception and of the intuition in the student? 8. How can it develop and use the capacity of analysis and of criterion the student in his daily life? The object of the investigation or topic, matter of the investigation. It is the axis on the one that turns the investigation, from the beginning up to the end.

Nevertheless, the object of study or of investigation; it always exists inside a wider and complex set, since we cannot analyze and study the totality "quite", only we can study a part or a plot of the knowledge " divides everything ". Therefore, the object of study can be understood, be analyzed and explain itself across the Analysis and the Synthesis, since there exist a totality of which the investigation is a part.

Therefore, we must ask ourselves about the following thing:

What is desirable to be investigated or what wants to be reached or to know or to determine with the investigation (final goal and the scope and limitation)? To analyze, to tell, to identify and to describe the qualities and determinations about the object that were not known or confused before initiating his systematical investigation. Departing from the general thing to the particular thing (from the abstract thing to the particular or concrete thing) What are the elements that are considered inside the investigation or object of study (he wants to say all the parts or elements " you divide everything " that are related and have an interdependence, and connection between if, and it describes or they identify with the object of study)? The hackneyed prayer or the statement of the object of study; it expresses, in brief and general form, the intention or the final goal to reaching in the investigation on the part of the researcher.

Will he have to know which are the scopes and limitations of the investigation? Will there have to be known the sector of the population who has to be investigated or related in order to study, and will it have to establish more strict limits as for the level of the concrete of his causes? This is an example:

The statement will be the following one: "The influence of the ACTION – WILL of the Pupil (emotions, feeling, desire, interest and intention) in SCHOOL LEARNING AND HIM WAKE UP OF THE CONSCIENCE" GENERAL TARGET: TO IDENTIFY, TO ADMIT AND TO ANALYZE the influence of the EMOTIONS in the States of Conscience and School Learning of the pupil SPECIFIC TARGETS:

To observe and to describe the influence of the Emotions of the pupil, during his stay in the Educational Institution.

To relate and to identify the attitudes and frames of mind of the pupil and the Teacher during the class To measure and to evaluate the conduct and personality of the Teacher and of the Pupil, across mechanisms of Psychometric Categorize and to evaluate the emotions that appear in the Teacher and the Pupil, so that we identify those who mainly prevail in the teacher and in the pupil Key question: 1. What are the factors (educational, familiar or personal) particular and general that influence the emotions (desire, feeling, interest, intention) of the teacher? 2. What are the factors (educational, familiar or personal) particular and general that influence the emotions (desire, feeling, interest, intention) of the pupil? Final goal or target of the Investigation: a) To recognize, to identify To be useful and to develop the capacities and intellectual and emotional skills in the pupil; and this way this way in certain moment suitable use of these could make hardware, in any situation or circumstance during his life.

b) To identify and to describe how they demonstrate and of what way there are interpreted and canalized the emotions (desire, interest, intention, feeling) in the states of conscience of the teacher.

c) To identify and to describe how they demonstrate and of what way there are interpreted and canalized the emotions in the states of conscience and learning of the pupil.

We must recognize than, on having been provided with a sufficient source of information; which present qualitative and quantitative characteristics on the teacher and the pupil. There will be had the aptitude to choose the most appropriate hardware that they allow to develop and to strengthen the intellectual, emotional, affective and social skills in the pupil.

The Words Keys will have to be enclosed, method (inductive, deductive), methodology and the instruments (polls, questionnaires, interviews, etc.) that will serve for the compilation of the information, and finally a summary will have to do to itself or abstract of the investigation.

Key words: Brain, brain reptile, mammalian brain, neomamífero brain, left lobe, right lobe, occipital lobe, parietal lobe, frontal lobe, side lobe, memory, fleeting memory, memory of work, memory of long term, conscience, unconsciousness, mind, reason, intelligence, emotional intelligence, intellectual intelligence, multiple intelligence, mental processes, sensation, impression, representation or idea, emotion, intuition, perception, instinct, the world of the Ideas, the world of the senses, theory of the unconscious one, theory of learning, materialism, idealism, empiricism, rationalism, theory of the education, Theory of the motivation, Theories psichopedagogycal, neurophysiology, neurolinguistics, sociological Theories, society, ideology, community, happiness, anxiety, fear, fear, depression, anger, desire, pleasure, will, egoism, control, power, resentment, determined reflex, undetermined reflex, psyche, spirit, matter, significant learning, traditional learning, dogma, superstition, doctrine, endogenous drugs, intrinsic motivation, extrinsic motivation.

Reflection

" We must recognize and accept, that the human thought across the top skills (intelligence, thought, etc.) of the man to constructed the scientific, technological and artistic thought: why does not it have to be capable of creating a national and international ambience which is subordinated to the justice, peace, happiness and brotherhood? The human nature has created men like Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Leonardo Da Vince, Newton, Beethoven, Mozart, Pascal, Lutero; heroes and geniuses in whom we find a peculiarity, which is the use of the intelligence and of the processes of abstraction. Therefore, the history and evolution of the scientific thought are processes of an arduous work and sacrifice of struggle and men's delivery that have recognized his cognitive faculties; qualities of the human nature, and especially of accepting with the force of the scientific spirit and the reason, into which only the nature and the society can transform the human being; and simultaneously, it can transform to yes same".

Culiacan, Sinaloa, Mexico, on September 12, 2006.

Ramon Ruiz.

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Thanks

To my mother and my brothers for allowing me, sharing the life between them.

Dedicated to these human beings that exist shared with me; the sleep of wanting to turn and to transform the thoughts actually. Across the searching to find and reach of the truth. Of what owes to be conscious all the time, since it implies a big effort and sacrifice, and especially dedication without limits. Nevertheless the biggest satisfaction is to understand, the laws that they govern the Nature, the society and the aspects that influence the attitudes of the human beings.

To the humanity, for this opportunity; although passenger and mayfly, of being a part of this beautiful and wonderful trip; which can be described as a quantum sleep, which is carried out in a quantum moment inside a space and limited time.

For all those for that, they have looked and work so hard for the virtue of being researches, since the above mentioned scientific spirit, it is not content to do the things; but it dares to be understood also and make understandable what it does.

Culiacan, Sinaloa, Mexico, on September 12, 2006.

Ramon Ruiz.

History and Evolution of the Scientific Thought.

Mexico 2006.

Autor:

Ramon Ruiz.

dreulerruiz[arroba]hotmail.com