En los últimos tiempos, la Biotecnología se ha convertido en una alternativa viable para la extracción de los valores presentes en las menas, así como para la recuperación de metales presentes en soluciones acuosas contaminantes. En el sector minero metalúrgico, los procesos biotecnológicos han logrado ser aplicados con éxito en la lixiviación de cobre y uranio, y en el pretratamiento de sulfuros auríferos refractarios. En el Perú, la Lixiviación Bacteriana ha sido aplicada con éxito en la recuperación de oro contenido en arsenopirita en Tamboraque, y en la disolución del cobre presente en los botaderos de Toquepala.
El empleo de sistemas biológicos en los procesos industriales, conocida como Biotecnología, ha sido usada desde tiempos inmemoriales en la producción de vino, cerveza, pan, en la fabricación de antibióticos, en la industria alimentaria, entre otras aplicaciones. En el sector minero metalúrgico, la biotecnología ha sido utilizada como una herramienta en la disolución y recuperación de los valores metálicos contenidos en menas. Mayormente, los procesos microbianos han sido empleados en la lixiviación de cobre y uranio, en el mejoramiento de la extracción de metales preciosos contenidos en sulfuros refractarios, y en el tratamiento de aguas residuales.
El enorme potencial que representa el empleo de bacterias en los procesos mineros se grafíca con la afirmación que en 1979 brindara el Dr. Richard Manchee al respecto: ..."una planta de extracción de minerales del futuro podría tener el aspecto de una actual de tratamiento de agua: libre de la suciedad y de los montones de escorias asociadas con las operaciones mineras, mientras que bajo el suelo millones de microbios realizarían las tareas que en nuestros días se caracterizan por el rugido de las máquinas, el ruido de los picos y el traslado de mineral".
La Lixiviación Bacteriana, también conocida como Biolixiviación, Biohidro-metalurgia o Biooxidación de Sulfuros, puede ser definida como un proceso natural de disolución que resulta de la acción de un grupo de bacterias - principalmente del género Thiobacillus - con habilidad de oxidar minerales sulfurados, permitiendo la liberación de los valores metálicos contenidos en ellos. Por mucho tiempo, se pensó que la disolución o lixiviación de metales era un proceso netamente químico, mediado por agua y oxigeno atmosférico. El descubrimiento de bacterias acidófilas ferro- y sulfo-oxidantes ha sido primordial en la definición de la lixiviación como un proceso catalizado biológicamente.
En términos más globales, se puede señalar que la biolixiviación es una tecnología que emplea bacterias especificas para lixiviar, o extraer, un metal de valor como uranio, cobre, zinc, níquel y cobalto presente en las menas o en un concentrado mineral. El producto final de la biolixiviación es una solución ácida que contiene el metal valor en su forma soluble. De otro lado, el término biooxidación es un utilizado para describir un proceso que emplea bacterias para degradar un sulfuro, usualmente pirita o arsenopirita, en la que el oro o la plata, o ambos, se encuentran encapsulados.
La tecnología microbiana presenta ventajas sobre los métodos no biológicos, entre los que podemos encontrar:
|
MICROORGANISMO |
FUENTE ENERGETICA |
pH |
TEMPERATURA (ºC) |
|
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans |
Fe+2 , U+4 , Sº |
1.5 |
25 - 35 |
|
Thiobacillus thiooxidans |
Sº |
2.0 |
25 - 35 |
|
Leptospirillum ferrooxidans |
Fe+2 |
1.5 |
25 - 35 |
|
Sulfolobus |
Sº , Fe+2 , C orgánico |
2.0 |
> a 60 |
|
Acidiphilium cryptum |
C orgánico |
2.0 |
25 - 35 |
|
Th. intermedius |
Sº, S-2, C orgánico |
2.5 |
30 |
|
Th. napolitanus |
Sº, S-2 |
2.8 |
30 |
|
Th. acidophilus |
Sº, S-2 |
3.0 |
|
|
Th. thioparus |
Sº. S-2 |
3.5 |
|
|
Thiobacillus TH2 y TH3 |
Fe+2, S-2 |
6.0 |
50 |
|
Metallogenium sp. |
Fe+2 |
4.5 |
|
|
Heterotrofos |
C orgánico |
25 - 40 |
Bacterias asociadas a la Lixiviación de Minerales (Ref. 6 y 29)
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans:
Los microorganismos que son responsables de la disolución de los metales a partir de minerales son, principalmente, organismos quimiosintéticos y autotróficos pertenecientes al género Thiobacillus, aunque como señalamos en un párrafo y tabla anterior, no es la única. De las especies de Thiobacillus que se conocen la que más atención ha recibido es Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, cuya presencia fue demostrada por Colmer y Hinkle, a comienzos de los años 50, en el drenaje unas minas de carbón, que reportaban altos contenidos de ácido y fierro.
T. ferrooxidans presenta forma bacilar, gram negativas, de 0.5 a 1.7 µ, algunas cepas tienen flagelos, es quimioautotrófico, capaz de oxidar compuestos inorgánicos como iones ferroso (Fe(II)) y azufre, los que le sirven de fuente primaria de energía. El carbono necesario para su arquitectura celular lo obtiene por fijación de CO2, de manera similar a las plantas verdes (Ciclo de Calvin-Benson). Es aerobio (requiere de O2 como aceptor final de electrones), acidófilo (desarrolla en rangos de pH que varían entre 1.5 y 3.0), y a temperaturas que oscilan entre 25-35ºC. Es considerada como el mayor contribuyente en la producción de aguas ácidas que drenan de depósitos de metales sulfurados, gracias a la capacidad que tienen de oxidar minerales de disulfuro de fierro, generando soluciones ácidas de sulfato férrico.
Mecanismos de Lixiviación
Los principales mecanismos involucrados en el proceso de lixiviación bacteriana son: directa e indirecta.
a.- Lixiviación Indirecta :
Dos reacciones importantes mediadas por T. ferrooxidans son:
Pirita FeS2 + 3.5 O2 + H2O Ô FeSO4 + H2SO4 ............... 1
2 FeSO4 + 0.5 O2 + H2SO4 Ô Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O ............... 2
El sulfato férrico es un oxidante fuerte capaz de disolver una amplia variedad de minerales sulfurados. La lixiviación con Fe2(SO4)3 recibe el nombre de lixiviación indirecta porque se realiza en ausencia de oxígeno o de bacterias y, es responsable de la disolución o lixiviación de varios minerales sulfurados de cobre de importancia económica:
Chalcopirita CuFeS2+ 2 Fe2(SO4)3 Ô CuSO4 + 5 FeSO4 + 2 Sº ......... 3
Chalcocita Cu2S + 2 Fe2(SO4)3 Ô 2 CuSO4 + 4 FeSO4 + 2 Sº ....... 4
El mecanismo de lixiviación indirecta depende de la regeneración biológica del sulfato férrico (reacción 2). El azufre (Sº) generado en las reacciones 3 y 4 puede ser convertido en ácido sulfúrico (H2SO4) por T. ferrooxidans según:
2 Sº + 3 O2 + 2 H2O Ô 2 H2SO4 ................. 5
Este ácido sulfúrico, así generado, mantiene el pH del sistema a niveles favorables para el desarrollo de la bacteria.
b.- Lixiviación Directa:
Las bacterias ferrooxidantes también pueden lixiviar sulfuros metálicos directamente sin la participación del sulfato férrico producido biológicamente. El proceso se describe en la siguiente reacción :
MS + 2 O2 Ô MSO4 .................. 6
donde M representa un metal bivalente.
bacteria
Pirita 2 FeS2 + H2O + 7.5 O2 Ô Fe2(SO4)3 + H2SO4 ...... 7
bacteria
Chalcopirita 2 CuFeS2 + 8.5 O2 + H2SO4 Ô 2CuSO4 + Fe2(SO4)3+ H2O ..8
Dado que el fierro siempre está presente en ambientes de lixiviación natural, es posible que tanto la lixiviación indirecta como la directa ocurran de manera simultánea.

Desarrollo Bacteriano
El efecto de ciertos factores ambientales sobre el desarrollo y crecimiento de las bacterias juega un rol importante dentro del proceso de lixiviación bacteriana, es por ello de mucha importancia el control de factores, como el pH, la presencia de oxigeno, la temperatura, la influencia de la luz, los requerimientos nutricionales, tamaño de partícula, y el efecto de inhibidores, entre otros.
Otros microorganismos de importancia:
Dentro de este grupo y estrechamente asociados a T. ferrooxidans encontramos a:
APLICACION DE LOS PROCESOS BIOTECNOLOGICOS
Biooxidación de Sulfuros
Muchos sulfuros metálicos pueden ser atacados por acción bacterial, dando lugar a la producción de los correspondientes sulfatos solubles. Para sulfuros refractarios de oro y metales del grupo del platino, el ataque bacterial resulta siendo un pretratamiento.
2 FeAsS + 7 O2 + H2SO4 + H2O Ù Fe2(SO4)3 + 2 H3AsO4
|
Proyecto & Ubicación |
Tipo & Tamaño |
Tecnología Aplicada |
Historia |
|
Fairview, Sud Africa |
Oro, 35 tm/ día |
GENMIN, tanque agitado |
Construido en 1986, en operación |
|
Sao Bento, Brazil |
Oro, 150 tm/día |
GENMIN, una fase de tanque agitado previo al autoclave |
Construido en 1990, en operación |
|
Harbour Lights, Australia |
Oro, 40 tm/día |
GENMIN, tanque agitado |
Construido en 1992, paralizado en 1994 |
|
Wiluna Mine, Australia |
Oro, 115 tm/día |
GENMIN, tanque agitado |
Construido en 1993, en operación |
|
Sansu, Ghana |
Oro, 1000 tm/día |
GENMIN, tanque agitado |
Construido en 1994, ampliado en 1995, en operación |
|
Youanmi, Australia |
Oro, 120 tm/día |
BACTECH, tanque agitado |
Construido en 1994, en operación |
|
Lo Aguirre, Chile |
Cu, lixiviacón en pilas |
Soc. Minera Pudahuel, bio-pilas |
Iniciado en 1980, paralizado en 1996 |
|
Cerro Colorado, Chile |
Cu, lixiviación en pilas |
Soc. Minera Pudahuel, biopilas |
Construido en 1993, en operación |
|
Quebrada Blanca, Chile |
Cu, lixiviación en pilas |
Soc. Minera Pudahuel, biopilas |
Construido en 1994, en operación |
|
Ivan-Zar, Chile |
Cu, lixiviación en pilas |
Soc. Minera Pudahuel, biopilas |
Construido en 1994, en operación |
|
Mt, Leyshon, Australia |
Cu/Au, lixiviación en pilas |
Biopila de capa delgada más cianuración |
Construido en 1992, en cierre |
|
Girilambone, Australia |
Cu, lixiviación en pilas |
Biopila |
Construido en 1993, en operación |
|
Newmont-Carlin, USA |
Oro, lixiviación en pilas |
Biopila y cianuración |
Construido en 1995, en operación |
|
Toquepala, Perú |
Cu, lixiviación de botaderos |
Dumps |
Iniciado en 1996, en operación |
|
Tamboraque, Perú |
Oro, 60 tm/día |
BIOX, tanque agitado |
Construido en 1998, en operación y producción |
Plantas de Biooxidación en Operación (ref. 3)
Desulfurización de Carbón
La presencia de azufre en las menas de carbón constituye un contaminante, cuya eliminación se presenta como un problema, sobre todo desde el punto de vista ambiental. La oxidación biológica de la porción piritosa o sulfurada permitirá eliminar el azufre presente. Muchos trabajos de laboratorio han demostrado que un importante porcentaje (generalmente por encima del 90%) del azufre contenido en la pirita puede ser removido del carbón bituminoso, sub-bituminoso y lignito en periodos de una a dos semanas por T. ferrooxidans. También es posible emplear bacterias termófilas del género Sulfolobus en la desulfurización de las menas de carbón.
La remoción del azufre orgánico presente en el carbón por vía microbiana es un área de interés por muchas razones. En algunos casos, la presencia de este tipo de azufre representa un porcentaje considerable del azufre total del carbón. Debido a que la efectiva desulfurización del carbón involucra la remoción del carbón orgánico como del inorgánico, los procesos microbianos que operan en condiciones cercanas a las ambientales, presentan innumerables ventajas sobre los métodos químicos y físicos convencionales.
Biorecuperación de Metales
Una tarea importante de la hidrometalurgia es la recuperación de los metales presentes en las soluciones, así como el tratamiento de las aguas residuales de las diferentes industrias, en cumplimiento de las rigurosas normas ambientales. Existen muchos microorganismos con capacidad para adsorber o precipitar metales. Algunas de las formas como los microbios recuperan los metales se detallan a continuación:
|
MICROORGANISMO |
FORMA DE ADSORCIÓN Y PRECIPITACIÓN |
|
Hongos, Levaduras y Bacterias |
Biosorción de elementos radioactivos y otros: Al, Ag, Zn, Cr, Ni, Cu, etc. |
|
Chitina y Chitosan |
Adsorción de Se, Zr, Hf, Ru de aguas circundantes en un sistema de enfriamiento de un reactor nuclear. |
|
Bacterias Sulfato Reductoras |
Precipitación de metales a partir de soluciones. C org. + SO4= Õ Sº + CO2 S= + Me Õ MeS ¯ |
|
Bacterias Reductoras |
Reducción del metal. Cr+6 Õ Cr+3 |
Son numerosas las posibilidades que se presentan para la aplicación de los procesos biotecnológicos en el beneficio de los minerales, algunos de los cuales reseñaremos brevemente en las siguientes líneas.
Los microorganismos pueden ser utilizados como agentes floculantes o como colectores en los procesos de flotación de minerales. La capacidad de muchos microorganismos de poder adherirse a superficies sólidas gracias a la interacción existente entre la carga de la pared celular y las condiciones hidrofobicas, modificando la superficie del mineral permitiendo su flotación y floculación (empleado en la separación de las fases sólida y líquida de una pulpa). Por ejemplo, se ha reporta que una bacteria hidrofobica es un excelente floculante para un número de sistemas minerales. Los minerales que han podido se floculados con esta organismo incluye a la hematita, ciertos lodos de fosfatos, floculación selectiva de carbón en menas piritosas, entre otras. Igualmente, este microorganismo es buen colector de hematita, y puede ser empleado en reemplazo del colector químico.
Otra área de enorme interés es el empleo de microorganismos heterótrofos, generalmente parte de la flora acompañante de Thiobacillus, como herramienta para la lixiviación de sistemas no sulfurados. Tal es el caso del empleo de un esquema de lixiviación bacterial heterotrófico para menas lateríticas de baja ley y que permitiría incrementar enormemente las reservas económicamente explotables de níquel. También el empleo de heterotrofos en la lixiviación de menas de manganeso, plata y fosfato podría incrementar el número de reservas para estos commodities importantes. Su empleo radica en la enorme ventaja que significa su rápida velocidad de crecimiento, en comparación con los autótrofos.
La biodegradación de compuestos tóxicos orgánicos representa otro rubro importante de aplicación de los procesos biológicos. Debemos recordar que una amplia variedad de sustancias, tóxicas y no tóxicas, pueden ser descargadas al medio ambiente como consecuencia de las operaciones mineras. Muchos de estos compuestos son productos químicos complejos empleados en flotación y en procesos hidrometalurgicos. Otros incluyen a productos derivados del petróleo empleados de manera diversa en las operaciones mineras. Se reporta la capacidad de especies de Klebsiella y Pseudomonas en la degradación de reactivos de flotación.
Asimismo, se reconoce la habilidad de ciertos microorganismos o de sus enzimas de degradar, bajo ciertas condiciones, cianuro empleado en la recuperación de oro y plata. Ejemplo a nivel industrial de esta aplicación, lo representa la planta de Homestake, en Estados Unidos, que viene funcionando desde 1984, y emplea una cepa nativa de Pseudomonas. En el Perú, se han realizado numerosas investigaciones al respecto por J. Guerrero (1992), J. Hurtado en la Universidad Cayetano Heredia y por investigadores del Centro de Investigaciones Metalúrgicas de la Universidad Nacional de Trujillo.
También es de potencial importancia el empleo de ciertas especies vegetales en la prospección geológica de yacimientos minerales como en la limpieza y recuperación de suelos contaminados con iones metálicos pesados. Aunque el empleo de plantas u organismos completos escapa a la definición de biotecnología, el uso de estas permitirá centrar su aplicación en áreas donde se tiene depósitos de relaves antiguos o en zonas urbanas caracterizadas por su alto grado de contaminación.
INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF MINING AND THE ENVIRONMENT
"Clean technology: Third Millennium Challenge"
July, 12 to 16, 1999 - LIMA-PERU
ENVIRONMENTAL BIOTECHNOLOGY FOR MINING AND METALLURGY
José J. Guerrero*(1,2) & Sonia C. Olivera(1)
(1)*: Los Rododendros Nº 246 - Urb. VIPOL- Correo Vipol - Callao 03 - PERU
Telf: (51-1) 989 4678 / 484 2284 e-mail: esojgue[arroba]hotmail.com / esojgue[arroba]yahoo.com
(2): MINAS Y PETROLEO, Chinchon 830, Of. 503 - San Isidro - Lima 27 - PERU
Telf: (51-1) 422 2715 ; Fax: (51-1) 422 3077 e-mail: minasypetroleo[arroba]terra.com.pe
*: Author to whom correspondence should be addressed
SUMMARY
In recent times, the environmental protection is one of the most important topics in the industrial processes. This interest has led to the development, day by day, of new technology in order to remediate and control the pollution generated by the productive activities of human being. One of the new technological alternatives is Biotechnology, that employs microorganisms or part of them to remediate some of the pollution problems originated in the industry.
To mining and metallurgy, biological systems can be applied to the dissolution and recovery of heavy metals in effluents, in the reduction of chromium, reduction of sulfates employing sulfate reducing bacteria, oil degradation and recovery, biosorption, and cyanide degradation. Another important application is the employment of plants with the ability to accumulate higher levels of metal ions in what is called wetlands for the passive treatment of acidic effluents.
INTRODUCTION
One of the features of modern society is the growing emission of chemicals and toxics to the environment. After the industrial revolution the levels of pollution of the surrounding environment accelerated dramatically. The primary sources of this pollution are the burning of fossil fuels, mining and smelting of metalliferous ores, municipal and domestic wastes, fertilizers, pesticides and sewage.
As a result, many industrial and mining locations have surface soils and drainages contaminated with radionuclides, heavy metals and organic pollutants. Due to this characteristic, for many years, mining has been considered a highly contaminant industry mainly for the production of acidic solutions with a high content of metal ions that were disposed to the environment. Another important problem, originated in the treatment of ores or metallurgy, is the generation of toxic fumes by pyrometallurgical and smelting processes.
On the other hand, conventional technologies, developed for small and heavily contaminated sites are expensive in terms of costs and insufficient when they are applied to larger places, where pollutants are widely dispersed and in low concentration. The solution to this environmental problems lead us to the employment of natural processes of degradation and remediation of contaminated zones, usually known as biodegradation or bioremediation, respectively.
In this context, environmental biotechnology emerges as an alternate and innovative technology for the treatment of pollution generated by mining activities. The biological methods involves the use of microorganisms, mainly bacteria, but algae and microscopic fungi can be used, or their byproducts for the breaking of toxic compounds into non-toxic side products. In some cases the degradation gives CO2 and H2O as final products. The process receives the name of bioremediation.
Some of the advantages of the use of microbes are:
Another aspect in the treatment of effluents is the use of some types of plants, as we can see later, that have natural attributes for the removal of contaminants from polluted soils and waters, in a process called Phytoremediation.
Environmental biotechnology towards the next millennium is being developed at laboratory scale, pilot scale and commercial plants due to its high potential and the cheaper costs in the remediation of contaminated areas.
BIOREMEDIATION
Bio-oxidation of sulfate
Although the most important role of Thiobacillus ferrooxidans bacteria is in the leaching of sulfuric ores, mainly in the dissolution of copper and in the pretreatment of refractory gold ores; their ability to oxidize ferrous ions to ferric ions can be used as a tool in the treatment of acidic effluents. This waters may contain higher levels of ferrous ions in a low pH (usually closer to 2) difficult to precipitate. In this case Thiobacillus ferrooxidans can be employed to oxidize this ferrous sulfate giving a solution with a high content of ferric sulfate which can be precipitated with calcium carbonate.
This technology is applied at the Matsuo Neutralization Plant in Japan for the treatment of the acid drainage generated in the abandoned Matsuo mine, the largest sulfur mine in Asia. The acid mine drainage (AMD) was discharged to the Akagawa river and then to the Kitakami river, with the grave social problem for the people living along the riverside. AMD also contains important levels of arsenic.
4 FeSO4 + 2 H2SO4 + O2 + bacteria ® 2 Fe2(SO4)3 + H2O
Fe2(SO4)3 + 3 CaCO3 + 3 H2O ® 2 Fe(OH)3 ¯ + 3 CaSO4 ¯ + 3 CO2

It also must be kept in mind that Thiobacillus ferrooxidans is one of the most important contributors to the acid mine drainage in pyritic tailings dams, so one of the main objectives to eliminate AMD must focus in the growth inhibition of this bacteria employing chemical compounds as sodium lauryl sulfate, potassium benzoate, potassium sorbate and the commercial product known as PROMAC®; promoting the growth and development of heterotrophic bacteria such as Acidiphilium capable to metabolize organic acids, which are inhibitory to Thiobacillus; and the use of some type of waste such as chicken manure, sewage sludge, oil shale in conjunction with lime to inhibit the oxidation of pyrite.
Sulfate reduction
This is a common anaerobic, microbial decomposition process, in which dissolved metals can be removed as sulfide precipitates by the action of sulfate reducing bacteria (SRB) mainly belonging to 2 genera: Desulfovibrio (5 sps) and Desulfotomaculatum (3 sps).In absence of oxygen, SRB oxidize organic matter using oxidized sulfur compounds (such as sulfates and sulfites) as an electron acceptor and subsequently reducing it to hydrogen sulfide (H2S). When released, hydrogen sulfide can be liberated as gas or retained as metallic sulfides, polysulfides, elemental sulfur, iron monosulfides and pyrite.
The reduction produces alkalinity, which decreases acidity and raises pH. Formation of sulfides removes iron from solutions.
Sulfate (SO4 =) + SRB ® H2S
Soluble metals + H2S ® insoluble metal sulfide (Me2S)
The action of microorganisms, in this method, is dependent on the presence of sulfate and suitable organic matter in an anoxic, aquatic environment. In marine systems, sulfate levels are very high, and sulfate reduction is only limited by the presence of suitable organic matter in anoxic sediments. In most freshwater systems, sulfate reduction is limited by very low sulfate concentrations and microbially-mediated methanogenesis is the more important anaerobic, decomposition process. Because the formation of iron sulfides is primarily dependent on the presence of reduced sulfur, freshwater sediments typically have very low pyrite levels.
The trends in the use of SRB are directed to:
The major commercial application of the SRB technology is located in Budel-Dorplein, The Netherlands, where Budelco B.V. is operating a zinc refinery. Budelco employs the process developed by Paques Environmental Technology of USA and marketed under the name THIOPAQ® for the sulfate removal and metal recovery.
THIOPAQ® consists of two biological processes complemented with solids separation steps. In the first biological step, an anaerobic reactor (BIOPAQ® USAB type) is used for the conversion of sulfate to sulfide (as hydrogen sulfide - H2S) by sulfate reducing bacteria. In order to make the reduction possible another compound, referred to as reductant or electron donor, has to be oxidized by the bacteria. In this case the reductant is ethanol. The second biological process uses a Submerged Fixed Film (SFF) for the conversion of sulfide to elemental sulfur. This oxidation is performed by aerobic micro-organisms of the group of the colorless sulfur bacteria. The metals present are precipitated by H2S.
The THIOPAQ® process for biological metal and sulfate removal is summarized in the following reactions:
H2SO4 + 4 H2 + ½ O2 ® Sº¯ + 5 H2O + biomass
MeSO4 + 4 H2 ® MeS¯ + 4 H2O
where Me is a metal (Cu, Zn, Fe, Pb, etc)
The Paques treatment plant in Budelco was commissioned in 1992 and treats 300m3/h of effluents containing 100 ppm zinc, 1 ppm cadmiun and 1000 ppm of sulfate. After the treatment, the solution of discharge contains < 0.3 ppm Zn, < 0.01 ppm Cd and < 200 ppm sulfate. The metals precipitated are recovered and taken to the smelter and the elemental sulfur to the sulfuric acid plant. The results about metals removal show a 99% elimination.
Since 1995, Paques and Kennecott have been cooperating in the development of technologies for the treatment of water with elevated metal and sulfate concentrations. A pilot plant is in operation to asses the THIOPAQ® sulfate and metal removing technology using hydrogen as electron donor. The results show that the pH raises from 3.9 to 8.5 and the sulfate concentration decreases from 30,000 mg/l to < 500 mg/l. The plant is located at Kennecott’s Bingham Canyon Copper Mine in Utah, USA.
Biosorption
Microorganisms (bacteria, yeasts, filamentous fungi and algae) or their metabolic products are able to concentrate and accumulate metals (heavy ions and many toxic anions) from diluted aqueous solutions. The main mechanisms by which microbes immobilize, complex or remove metals from solutions are: volatilization; extracellular precipitation; extracellular complexing and subsequent accumulation; binding to the cell surface; and, intracellular accumulation. The application of microorganisms has the potential use for either economic recovery of metals or the treatment of waste streams for environmental protection.
Microbial processes for metal removal from solution function by either accumulation of dissolved metals and entrapment of particulate metals or for the production of by-products rendering the metal insoluble. Two mechanisms have been identified which enable microbes to concentrate metals: binding of metals to cell surface components such as cellular ligands and biopolymers (biosorption) and metabolism-dependent intracellular accumulation. Other physiological activities of cell can also lead to insolubilization of metals.
|
MICROBES |
METAL ACCUMULATED |
|
BACTERIA |
|
|
Aeromonas sp. |
Au |
|
Bacillus sp. |
U, Cu, Zn, Cd |
|
Pseudomonas aeruginosa |
U |
|
Pseudomonas putida |
Cd |
|
Pseudomonas sturzeri |
Zn |
|
Pseudomonas malthofila |
Ag |
|
Enterobacter cloacae |
Cs |
|
Alcaligenes eutrophus |
Cd, Zn, Ni, Cu, Co |
|
FUNGI |
|
|
Neurospora crassa |
Co |
|
Rhizopus arrhizus |
U, Th |
|
Aspergillus niger |
Cu, U, Cr |
|
Penicillium sp. |
Cu, Pb, Zn, Cr, Cd |
|
YEAST |
|
|
Saccharomyces cerevisae |
U, Cu, Co |
|
Rhodotorula |
Au |
|
ALGAE |
|
|
Chlorella vulgaris |
Au, Pb |
|
Spirulina |
Au |
|
Spirogyra |
Mo |
Some metal accumulating microbes
The microbe metabolic products that can be used in the recovery of metals include alginates, extracted from marine algae, chitin and chitosan main constituent of fungal cell membrane, and gelatin. These carry amide groups that are reactive molecules useful in the sorption of metalic ions. Chitin and chitosan have shown to be effective in the adsorption of Se, Zr, Hf, Ru, etc. Strains of Neurospora, Mucor, Rhizopus and Aspergillus have been shown to remove selectively concentrations of Zn, Cu, Fe and As, respectively.
For sorption of metals it is possible to use: a) non-growing or dead biomass and b) living cells. In the first case, it is a physico-chemical process that employs cell for chelation, adsorption or possible precipitation of ions. The advantages include precise control of the metals removal process in reactors or as biofilms and in the use of inexpensive biomass produced for other industrial activities. The second one, which utilizes the activities of living cells, can be used to adsorb (capture of ions over the surface of cell membrane or wall) or absorb (inclusion of ions inside the cell) metals. The use of living cells may be a viable treatment process when large volumes of contaminated waters must be treated in holdings ponds.
The first commercial process, AMT-BIOCLAIM™, owned by Advanced Mineral Technologies, was developed using a proprietary, granulated, non-living biosorbent prepared from microbial species. The granules have high capacity for accumulation of metal cations (0.8 mM Ag, 1.9 mM Cd, 2.9 mM Pb, 2.4 mM Cu, and 2.1 mM Zn per gram of granules), and metal removal from dilute solutions (10-100 mg per liter of solution) exceeds 99%. The product also removes gold from aurocyanide solutions. The use of granulated biomass has the potential for metals recovery and wastewater treatment of mine effluents.
Another process was developed by the disappeared U.S. Bureau of Mines’ Salt Lake Research Center. It consists of porous polymeric beads containing immobilized non-living biological materials for extracting metal contaminants from wastewaters. Inmobilized biological materials include peat moss, algae, biological polymers and other material that demonstrate high affinities for heavy metals. The beads, designed as BIO-FIX beads, have distinct advantages over other methods because it has excellent handling characteristics. The beads can effectively remove toxic metals such as copper, cadmium, zinc, lead and mercury among others. Adsorbed metals can be removed from beads using dilute mineral acids.
Microbial and Aquatic Treatment Systems, Inc. (MATS) have developed a process, marketed under the name of BIOMAT™, for the remediation of organic and metal/metalloid contamination. Among the latter, Biomat has been found to reduce selenate to elemental selenium, remove lead, cadmium, copper, zinc, cobalt, chromium, iron, uranium and manganese from water an to remove lead from sediments.
Microbial mats are a consortium of blue-green algae and bacteria which are highly tolerant of toxic metals and harsh environmental conditions. In a broad conception, the mats are heterotrophic and autotrophic communities dominated by blue-green algae (or cyanobacteria). They are self-organized laminated structures, and with slimy secretions, can be immobilized to a variety of substrates. They are both nitrogen-fixing and photosynthetic.
Cyanide biodegradation
Although biological processes have been proven to be effective in the treatment of elevated concentrations of free cyanide (> 500 mg/l), it is only with the designing, commissioning and operation of the biological treatment plant at the Homestake Mining in Lead, South Dakota, USA, in 1984, that the process have a commerctal application. The treatment system is based on biodegradation of cyanides and biosorption of toxic heavy metals and suspended solids from metallurgical process effluents. The treated effluent meet strict environmental permit limits at exceptionally low operating costs.
The conceptual design was based on the knowledge that many biological forms could tolerate cyanide through some mechanism of degradation or toxicity reduction. It was also known that biomass will absorb heavy metals. The main microorganism responsible for the degradation of cyanide is Pseudomonas sp. The process involves two separate bacterial oxidation steps. The first one involves the oxidative breakdown of cyanides and thiocyanate, and subsequent adsorption/precipitation of the free metals into a biofilm. The second step of the assimilation converts ammonia to nitrate through conventional nitrification. The bacterial biomass is attached to a number of Rotatory Biological Contactors (RBCs) forming a biofilm. This gives the adequate surface area for growth of bacteria and promotes chemical adsorption and precipitation within the biomass.
Too many microbes are shown to utilize cyanide as source of carbon or nitrogen. Among them are Actinomyces, Alcaligenes, Arthrobacter, Bacillus, Neisseria, Fusarium, Pseudomonas, Hasenula, etc. A lot of research have been done in Peru in order to determine the effectiveness of some fungal strains in the degradation of cyanide. These include a Penicillium-like fungi and Trichoderma and Aspergillus.
Chromium bioreduction
Hexavalent chromium compounds are widely used in the form of chromate and dichromate in a variety of industrial processes. This leads to the discharge of contaminated effluents into the environment where they pose a toxicity hazard. Depending on concentration, frequency and duration of exposure chromium compounds represent both acute and chronic human health hazard. It also has been demonstrated to be highly toxic to aquatic animal life and to plants.
As a result of their toxic potentials to humans, animals and plants there is an increasingly interest in remediating chromium contaminated environments. Among all the alternatives, microbiological ones emerges as a viable possibility. The most traditional of microbial methods is biosorption, typically employing microbes that produce extracellular polymers. A polymer producing bacterium, Zoogloea ramigena, has been demonstrated to remove hexavalent chromium. It has also been shown that sulfate reducing bacteria are able to remove Cr(VI) with poor efficiency. Direct metabolic reduction of Cr(VI) by bacteria seems to show more promise as a viable bioremediation method. It was reported that some Pseudomonas strains are able to reduce chromate, dichromate and crocoite during anaerobic growth. Another group of chromate reducing bacteria include to Achromobacter, Aeromonas, Bacillus, Escherichia and Enterobacter.
Selenium removal
Removal of metals, such as selenium, from solutions and wastewaters are some of the most complex environmental problems. Numerous bacterial isolates, from agricultural and mining wastes, have been screened to isolate and enhance the best metals and toxic inorganic reducers. Pseudomonas stuzeri isolates have been identified to be able to grow and reduce selenium from solutions containing up to 1000 mg/l selenate, 280 mg/l sulfate over a broad pH range and under aerobic conditions.
Arsenate reduction
Arsenic removal from mining wastewater to meet the USEPA’s standards is a current problem facing the mining industry. The use of microorganisms to reduce arsenic for dissolution from effluent streams may prove to be a cost effective an efficient removal method. Pseudomonas putida and Pseudomonas stuzeri reduced 100 ppm arsenate to 4 ppm and 6 ppm arsenate respectively, while forming stoichiometric concentrations of arsenite.
PHYTOREMEDIATION
Phytoremediation focuses on the power of nature to heal itself, somewhat like proven process for bioremediation, which uses bacteria and other microbes to degrade contaminants in soil and water. But phytoremediation is more proactive than bioremediation, improves the appearance of sites more quickly, and, in some cases, can clean up sites that are not receptive to the use of bacteria.
Phytoremediation of contaminants takes three forms:
This technology employs the ability of certain group of plants to tolerate high levels of metals. Normally trace concentrations of metals can be found in plants. On metalliferous soils, with high levels of one or more of the elements zinc, chromium, cadmium, lead, nickel, copper, cobalt, manganese, and selenium, a few plant species may exhibit extraordinary metal uptake. In extreme cases, such an element may no longer be a trace element, but a major inorganic constituent, with concentrations exceeding 10,000 mg/kg (1%) in the plant dry matter, or 10%-20% in the ash. This group of plants are known as "hyperaccumulators".
Normal and abnormal concentrations of elements in plant leaves (mg/kg)
|
Element |
Low |
Normal |
High |
Hyperaccumulators |
|
Fe |
10.0 - 60.0 |
600 |
2,500* |
|
|
Mn |
5.0 - 20.0 |
400 |
2,000 |
10,000 - 50,000 |
|
Zn |
5.0 - 20.0 |
400 |
2,00 |
10,000 - 50,000 |
|
Cd |
0.03 - 0.1 |
3 |
20 |
100 - 3,000 |
|
Pb |
0.01 - 0.1 |
5 |
100 |
1,000 - 8,000 |
|
Ni |
0.20 - 1.0 |
10 |
100 |
1,000 - 40,000 |
|
Co |
0.05 - 0.2 |
5 |
50 |
1,000 - 10,000 |
|
Cr |
0.05 - 0.2 |
5 |
50 |
1,000 - 2,500 |
|
Cu |
1.0 - 5.0 |
25 |
100 |
1,000 - 12,500 |
|
Se |
0.01 - 0.1 |
1 |
10 |
100 - 6,000 |
*: iron levels in a few species can be up to 35,000 mg/kg.
The effects of metalliferous soils on plants vary a great deal, according to the plant species, the enriched elements and the physical and chemical characteristics of the soils. In most cases the plants that survive in metalliferous environments do so by successfully restricting metals, either by preventing their entry into the plant system altogether, or by immobilizing the metals in the root system and preventing their transport to other parts of the plant where they could have damaging effects on many metabolic processes.
In the field of mineral exploration, if a plant occurring on metalliferous soils can be shown to be a hyperaccumulator of some element, although it is not confined to such substrates, the biogeochemical method of prospecting may be applicable. On the other hand, where a hyperaccumulator plant is also endemic metalliferous soils, the geobotanical method of prospecting can be used. It also can be useful in bioremediation, i.e. the reduction of the heavy metal burden of contaminated soils and waters.
Wetlands
The principles shown above can be used in passive systems for the effluents treatment in what is known as wetlands. This can reduce contaminant charges (organic an inorganic compounds) by way of number of intake and precipitation reactions of metals , and also can act as filter for suspended solids.
A wetland has two distinct zones: oxidative, composed of aquatic plants, and reductive, zone rich in sulfate reducing bacteria, denitrifying bacteria and manganese reducing bacteria. In order to remove metals, mainly in acid mine drainage, the process proceed in 4 steps:
Wetlands can be aerobic and anaerobic. The first one, also called of "surface flow", are directed to improve the oxidation process. This are useful in removing organic compounds, iron, ammoniac, and suspended solids. The system does not need organic matter. Anaerobic wetlands or "subsurface flow" contain limestone cover at the bottom of the wetland. This limestone is covered with organic matter and plants are cultivated over it. This can support growth and development of sulfate reducing bacteria.
The main benefit of wetlands is their passive and friendly nature with the environment. Risks are associated that is a process which has not been tested in a long period respect to its costs, maintenance and efficiency, particularly with the behavior of metallic sludge and its disposal.
REFERENCES
Biól. José J. Guerrero Rojas
*: Presentado en el Primer Congreso Peruano de Biotecnología y Bioingeniería realizado en Trujillo, Perú, Noviembre 1998.
www.mobot.org./jwcross/phytoremediation/Biotecnologia.htm / www.perumine.com/paper/guerrero.htm
Estructura de la monografía.jessy2j | 2006-11-20 14:41:20
Esta monografía es una excelente presentación; contiene todo lo más relevante del tema y resulta de mucho interés: su descripción del tema es de manera concisa y clara. Aporta además una gran cantidad de compañías que están empleando la biotecnología minera, con lo que se demuestra la importancia que tiene hoy el uso de la misma. Mi reconocimiento al autor y a monografías.com.
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