Proyecto de investigación epidemiológica: Asma (página 3)

A) El grupo etario
más afectado durante todos los años (1995 a 2003)
fue el de niños
de entre 5 y 14 años de edad.

B) El número total de casos acumulados
durante los nueve años, en niños de entre 5 y 14
años es de 4925.

C) El año con mayor número de casos
fue el 2002.

D) El asma se ha encontrado entre los lugares 11 a
16 de las enfermedades más frecuentes en la Ciudad de
Morelia, Michoacán.

E) No se pudo clasificar la información por
sexo ya que los datos no estuvieron disponibles en el momento de
la indagación.

CASOS ACUMULADOS DE ASMA POR EDAD EN
LA JURISDICCION 01

MORELIA, MICHOACAN

Fuente: Dirección General de Epidemiología.
Secretaria de Salud. Sistema Nacional
de Salud.

CASOS ACUMULADOS DE ASMA POR EDAD EN
MICHOACAN

Fuente: Dirección General de
Epidemiología. Secretaria de Salud. Sistema Nacional de
Salud.

CASOS NUEVOS DE ASMA ACUMULADOS
EN

EL ESTADO DE
MICHOACAN

CASOS NUEVOS DE ASMA ACUMULADOS EN
LA

JURISDICCION 01, MORELIA,
MICHOACAN

Fuente: Dirección General de
Epidemiología. Secretaría de Salud. Sistema
Nacional de Salud.

Fuente: Dirección General de
Epidemiología. SSA. Sistema Nacional de Salud.

Fuente: Dirección General de
Epidemiología. SSA. Sistema Nacional de Salud.

Fuente: Dirección General de
Epidemiología. SSA. Sistema Nacional de Salud.

Fuente: Dirección General de
Epidemiología. SSA. Sistema Nacional de Salud.

Fuente: Dirección General de
Epidemiología. SSA. Sistema Nacional de Salud.

Fuente: Dirección General de
Epidemiología. SSA. Sistema Nacional de Salud.

Fuente: Dirección General de
Epidemiología. SSA. Sistema Nacional de Salud.

Fuente: Dirección General de
Epidemiología. SSA. Sistema Nacional de Salud.

Fuente: Dirección General de
Epidemiología. SSA. Sistema Nacional de Salud.

Fuente: Dirección General de
Epidemiología. SSA. Sistema Nacional de Salud.

Fuente: Dirección General de
Epidemiología. SSA. Sistema Nacional de Salud.

Fuente: Dirección General de
Epidemiología. SSA. Sistema Nacional de Salud.

Discusión

Mis resultados coinciden con los datos
epidemiológicos mundiales y nacionales, ya que
efectivamente, el asma bronquial es una enfermedad más
común en niños y adolescentes.
Mannino, en sus estudios realizados en EUA, afirma que el
predominio mundial es del 16% y a los niños corresponde el
10% de dicho porcentaje. Por otra parte, en México, el
Sistema Nacional de Vigilancia Epidemiológica
señala que la prevalencia acumulativa en menores de 15
años es del 12%, sin embargo afirma que en dicho intervalo
de edad el subgrupo etario más afectado fue el de menores
de 4 años. Este informe nacional
no coincide con mis resultados ya que el grupo de edad más
afectado en la Ciudad de Morelia es el de menores entre 5 y 14
años.

TESIS

Yo afirmo que el grupo de edad más afectado por
asma bronquial en la Ciudad de Morelia, Michoacán es el de
niños entre 5 y 14 años de edad.

Conclusiones

Basándome en la información recabada en la Ciudad de
Morelia, la cual coincide con cifras mundiales, nacionales y
estatales, concluyo que el asma bronquial es una enfermedad
común en la población menor de 15 años de edad,
por lo que es indispensable la implementación de programas
dirigidos a la prevención de dicha entidad
nosológica puesto que puede llegar a causar la
muerte.

Deben plantearse metas para disminuir los ataques
asmáticos en niños y evitar así que haya
complicaciones, algunas medidas útiles son las
siguientes:

• controlar el asma reduciendo los
  factores desencadenantes ambientales, promoviendo un estilo
  de vida saludable con niveles adecuados de descanso,
  ejercicio y nutrición, asegurándose de usar el
  medicamento correcto.

• promover la salud emocional para que el
  niño se considere a sí mismo una persona
  saludable, no enferma, y tenga confianza en su capacidad para
  enfrentar desafíos y tener éxito.

• evitar que los síntomas afecten
  los niveles de energía del niño, su
  concentración, atención, relaciones sociales,
  actividad física y bienestar general.

Una vez diagnosticada el asma, el médico y los
padres o cuidadores del niño trabajarán con el
niño en un plan de
tratamiento y control eficaz.
Si el niño es muy pequeño, los padres o cuidadores
deben ayudar observando posibles síntomas de asma y
asesorando sobre el uso de los aparatos que miden su capacidad
para respirar, y asegurar que el niño reciba los
medicamentos adecuados cuando sean necesarios.

Referencias

(1) Basave Agustín. BREVE HISTORIA DE LA
FILOSOFIA GRIEGA

Ediciones Botas. México, 1997. Pags.
40-98.

(2) Parain Brice. HISTORIA DE LA FILOSOFIA TOMO
II. Editorial Siglo XXI.

México, 1989. Pags. 42-57.

(3) Zea Leopoldo. EL PENSAMIENTO
II. Editorial Pormaca. España,
1992.

Pags. 113-119.

(4) Marías Julián. HISTORIA DE LA
FILOSOFIA. Editorial Revista
Occidente.

México, 1997. Pags. 40-46.

(5) Hirschberger Johannes. HISTORIA DE LA FILOSOFIA I.
Editorial Herder.

España, 1998. Pags. 288-305.

(6) Dynnik M.A. FILOSOFIA. Editorial Grijalbo.
México, 1993. Pags. 496-503.

(7) Mannino DM, Homa DM, Pertowski CA, et al.
Surveillance for asthma United States, 1960–1995. MMWR CDC
Surveill Summ. 1998;47:1–27.

(8) National Center for Health Statistics.
Asthma prevalence, health care use and mortality,
2000–2001.. Accessed January 21, 2004.

(9) Centers for Disease Control. Forecasted
state specific estimates of self reported asthma prevalence
United States, 1998. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1998; 47:
1022-1025.

(10) Basagaña X, Sunyer J, Kogevinas
M,et al. Socioeconomic Status and Asthma Prevalence in Youngs
Adults. Am J Epidemiol, 2004; 160: 178-188.

(11) Burnett RT, Villeneuve P, Lin M, et
al. Gaseous Air Pollutants and Asthma Hospitalization of Children
with low Household Income in Vancouver, Canada. Am J
Epidemiol, 2004; 159: 294-303

(12) Kogevinas M, Anto JM, Soriano JB, et
al. The risk of asthma attributable to occupational exposures. A
population-based study in Spain. Spanish Group of the European
Asthma Study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med,
1996;154:137-143.

(13) Le Moual N, Kennedy S, Kauffmann F.
Occupational Exposures and Asthma in 14,000 Adults from the
General Population. Am J Epidemiol, 2004; 160:
1108-1116.

(14) Smith DH, Malone DC, Lawson KA, et al.
A national estimate of the economic cost of asthma. Am J Respir
Crit Care Med, 1997; 156: 787-793.

(15) Weiss KB, Sullivan SD. The health
economics of asthma and rhinitis, I: assessing the economic
impact. J Allergy Clin Immunol.
2001;107:3–8.

(16) Antti K, Rami M, Timo K, et al. Work
Is Related to a Substantial Portion of Adult-onset Asthma
Incidence in the Finnish Population. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care
Med. 164: 565-568

(17) Weiss KB, Sullivan SD, Lyttle CS.
Trends in the cost of illness for asthma in the United States,
1985–1994. J Allergy Clin Immunol.
2000;106:493–499.

(18) Lozano P, Sullivan SD, Smith DH, et
al. The economic burden of asthma in USA children: estimates from
the Matinal Medical Expenditure Survey. J Allergy Clin Inmunol.
1999; 104: 957-963.

(19) López LJ. Estudio
epidemiológico de enfermedades
alérgicas en el Hospital General de México.
1998.

(20) Sistema Nacional de Vigilancia
Epidemiológica. Boletín Nº 30, Vol 21, semana
30 del 25 al 31 de julio de 2004.

(21) Vigilancia Epidemiológica.
Semana 45 de 2004. Datos hasta la semana 43 del 2004.

(22) Fuhlbrigge AL, Adams RJ, Guilbert TW,
et al. The burden of asthma in the United States: level and
distribution are dependent on interpretation of the national
asthma education and prevention program guidelines. Am J Respir
Crit Care Med 2002;166:1044–1049.

(23) Guerra S,
Wright A, Morgan W, et al. Persistence of asthma Symptoms during
Adolescence. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004; 170:
78-85.

(24) Morris C, Poljakovic M, Lavrisha L, et
al. Decreased Arginine Bioavailability and Increased Serum
Arginase Activity in Asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2004; 170:
148-153.

(25) Reader R, Jeffrey S, Tepper E, et al.
Pathogenesis of Mucous Cell Metaplasia in a Murine Asthma Model.
American Journal of Pathology. 2003;162:2069-2078

(26)  Holgate S, Davies D, Lackie P,
et al. Epithelial-mesenchymal interactions in the pathogenesis of
asthma. J Allergy Clin Inmunol 2000; 105: 193-204.(27) Burrows B,
Sears M, Flannery E, et al. Relations of bronchial responsiveness
to allergy skin test reactivity,
lung function, respiratory symptoms, and diagnoses in
thirteen-year-old New Zealand children. J Allergy Clin Inmunol
1995;95 (2): 548-556. (28) Ricciardolo FL, Stefano A, Sont JK, et
al. Proliferation and inflammation in bronchial epithelium after
allergen in atopic asthmatics. Clin Exp Allergy
2003;33(7):905-911.

(29) Payne D, Qiu Y, Peachey L, et al.
Airway inflammation in children with difficult asthma:
relationships with airflow limitation and persistent symptoms.
Thorax 2004;59:862-869.

(30) Barbato A, Turato G, Baraldo S, et al.
Airway Inflammation in Childhood Asthma. Am J Respir Crit Care
Med 2003; 168: 798-803.(31) Olman M. Epithelial Cell Modulation
of Airway Fibrosis in Asthma. American Journal of Respiratory
Cell and Molecular Biology 2003; 28: 125-128.(32) Wood L, Gibson
P, Garg L. Biomarkers of lipid peroxidation, airway inflammation
and asthma. Eur Respir J 2003;21(1):177-186.

(33) Cosío B, Mann B, Jazrawi E, et
al. Histone Acetylase and Deacetylase Activity in Alveolar
Macrophages and Boold Monocytes in Asthma. Am J Crit Care Med
2004; 170: 141-147.

(34) Hammad H, Hendrik J, Angeli V, et al.
Activation of Peroxisome Proliferator-Activated Receptor- in
Dendritic Cells Inhibits the Development of Eosinophilic Airway
Inflammation in a Mouse Model of
Asthma. American Journal of Pathology.
2004;164:263-271.

(35) Bahceciler N, Arikan C, Akkoc T, et
al. Predictors for the Severity of Bronchial Hyperreactivity in
Childhood Asthma Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2000;164:
1150-1153.

(36) Blease K, Schuh J,. Kunkel S, et al.
Stat6-Deficient Mice Develop Airway Hyperresponsiveness and
Peribronchial Fibrosis during Chronic Fungal Asthma. American
Journal of Pathology. 2002;160:481-490.

(37) Linhong D, Nigel J, Fabry P, et al.
Localized mechanical stress induces
time dependent actin cytoskeletal remodeling and stiffening in
cultured airway smooth muscle cells. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol
2004;287: C440-C448.

(38) Kumar R, Herbert C, Wollin L, et al.
Inhibition of Inflammation and Remodeling by Roflumilast and
Dexamethasone in Murine Chronic Asthma. The Journal of
Pharmacology And Experimental Therapeutics Fast Forward 2003; 10:
103.

(39) Rakesh K, Foster P. Modeling
Allergic Asthma in Mice Pitfalls and Opportunities.
American Journal of Respiratory Cell and Molecular
Biology.2002; 27:267-272.(40) Phipps S, Benyahia F,
Barkans J. Acute Allergen-Induced Airway Remodeling in
Atopic Asthma. American Journal of
Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology. 2004;31:
626-632.

(41) Elias J, Zhu Z, Chupp G, et al. Airway
remodeling in asthma. J Clin Invest 1999 ; 104 : 1001-
1006.

(42) Wenzel S, Szefler S, Leung D, et al.
Bonchoscopic evaluation of severe asthma: persistent inflammation
associated with high dose glucocorticoids. Am J Respir Crit Care
Med 1997; 156: 737-743.

(43) Akira M, Masayoshi A, Hayashi Y, et
al. Comparison study between the mechanisms of allergic asthma
amelioration by a cysteinyl-leukotriene type 1 receptor
antagonist, montelukast, and methylprednisolone. The
Journal of Pharmacology And Experimental Therapeutics Fast
Forward 2004; 10:1124.

(44) Yang G, Emmell E, Petley T, et
al. Therapeutic Dosing with Anti-Interleukin-13
Monoclonal Antibody Inhibits Asthma Progression
in Mice. The Journal of Pharmacology And Experimental
Therapeutics Fast Forward. 2005; 10. 1124/
104

(45) Yiqing C, Bjermer L, Halstensen T.
Bronchial Mast Cells Are the Dominating LTC4S-Expressing Cells in
Aspirin-Tolerant Asthma. American Journal of Respiratory Cell and
Molecular Biology 2003; 29: 683-693.

(46) Renzi P, Turgeon J, Marcotte J,
et al. Reduced Interferon- Production in Infants with
Bronchiolitis and Asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit.
Care Med 1999; 156: 1417-1422.

(47) Minoo A, Vandenbos T, Youakim A. Lung
epithelial barrier function and wound healing are decreased by
IL-4 and IL-13 and enhanced by IFN- . Am J Physiol Cell
Physiol 2001; 281: C2029-C2038. (48) Mateja M, Korosec P, Kosnik
M, et al. Complement Factors C3a, C4a, and C5a in Chronic
Obstructive Pulmonary Disease and Asthma. American Journal of
Respiratory Cell and Molecular Biology 2004; 31:
216-219.

(49) Sheikh S, Castile R, Hayes J, et al.
Assessing bronchodilator responsiveness in infants using partial
expiratory flow-volume curves. Pediatr Pulmonol
2003;36(3):196-201.

(50) www.sap.org.ar/epidemiologia.htm

(51) Quiroz Gutiérrez Fernando. Anatomía Humana Tomo
III. Editorial Porrúa. México, 2000. Pags.
7-62.

(52) Tortora Grabowski Gerard. Principios de
Anatomía y Fisiología. Editorial Oxford.
México, 1998. Pags. 785-787.

(53) Lockhart R, Hamilton G. Anatomía Humana Tomo
II. Editorial Mc Graw Hill Interamericana. México, 1998.
Pags. 815-825.

(54) Moore Keith L. Embriología Clínica. Editorial Mc
Graw Hill. México 2000. Pags. 255-282.

(55) Fitzgerald M.J. Embriología Médica.
Editorial Manual Moderno.
México 1996. Pags. 133-135.

(56) Geneser Finn. Histología. Editorial Médica
Panamericana. México 2001. Pags, 535-552.

(57) Fawcett Don. Tratado de Histología.
Editorial Interamericana Mc Graw Hill. México 1997. Pags.
765-788.

(58) Guyton Arthur C. Tratado de Fisiología
Médica. Editorial Mc Graw Hill Interamericana.
México 2001. Pags. 525-565.

(59) Pineda Ortuño José. Clínica
del Aparato
Respiratorio. Editorial Méndez Oteo. México
1995. Pags. 37-51.

(60) Tanja P, Howel D, Prince H, et
al. Prevalence of asthma and other
respiratory symptoms in children living near and away from
opencast coal mining sites Int J Epidemiol
2001;30:556-563.

(61) Fujimura M, Ogawa H, Nishizawa Y, et al. Comparison
of atopic cough with cough variant asthma: is atopic cough
a precursor of asthma. Thorax 2003;58:14-18.

(62) Castro J, Holberg C, Wrigt A, et al. A
Clinical Index to Define Risk of Asthma in Young Children with
Recurrent Wheezing. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2000;162:
1403-1406.

(63) Sigurs N, Bjarnason R, Kjellman B, et
al. Respiratory Syncytial Virus
Bronchiolitis in Infancy Is an Important Risk Factor for Asthma
and Allergy at Age 7 Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.2000; 161:
1501-1507.

(64) Put C, Lemaigre V, Demedts M, et al.
Evaluation of an individualised asthma programme directed at
behavioural change. Eur Respir J 2003;21(1):109-115.

(65) Patients with Severe Asthma Relation
to Sputum Eosinophils. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med
1998;158: 1134-1141.

(66) Moy M, Lantin M, Harver A, et
al. Language of Dyspnea in Assessment of
Patients with Acute Asthma Treated with Nebulized
Albuterol . Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med 1998;158:
749-753.

(67) Ulrik C, Lange P.
Decline of lung function in adults with bronchial
asthma. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med 1994;150:
629-634.

(68) Stephen I. Rennard T, Stephen G, et al.
Exacerbations and Progression of Disease in Asthma and Chronic
Obstructive Pulmonary Disease. The Proceedings of the American
Thoracic Society 2004;1:88-92.

(69) Kathleen B, Beckett W, Triche
E, et al. Symptoms of Wheeze and Persistent Cough in the First
Year of Life: Associations with Indoor Allergens, Air
Contaminants, and Maternal History of Asthma. Am J Epidemiol
2003; 158:195-202.

(70) Janneane F, Triche E, Holford T, et al. Association
of Low-Level Ozone and Fine Particles With Respiratory Symptoms
in Children With Asthma. JAMA. 2003; 290: 1859-1867.

(71) Anderson H, Bland J, Patel P?. The natural history
of asthma in chilhood. J Epidemiol Community Health
1997;51:121-129.

(72) Elias J, Lee C, Zheng T, et al. New Insights into
the pathogenesis of asthma. J Clin Invest 2003; 111:
291-297.

(73) Tristram P, Strites D. Inmunología Básica y Clínica.
Editorial Manual Moderno. Colombia 2002.
Pags. 422-429.

(74) Ram FS, Holloway
EA, Jones PW. Breathing retraining for asthma. Respir Med
2003;97(5):501-507.

(75) Ozcan M, Ortapamuk H, Naldoken S, et al. Pulmonary
aspiration of nasal secretions in patients with chronic sinusitis
and asthma. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg
2003;129(9):1006-1009.

(76) Polosa R, Gotti F, Mangano G, et al.
Monitoring of seasonal variability in bronchial
hyper-responsiveness and sputum cell counts in non-asthmatic
subjects with rhinitis and effect of specific immunotherapy. Clin
Exp Allergy 2003;33(7):873-881.

(77) Chapman R, Wilbur C, Hadden A, et al.
Influences of Asthma and Household Environment on Lung Function
in Children and Adolescents. Am J Epidemiol 2003;
158:175-189.

(78) Merkus P, Pelt W, Houwelingen J, et al. Inhaled
corticosteroids and growth of airway function in asthmatic
children. Eur Respir J 2004; 23:861-868

(79) Bai T, Cooper J, Koelmeyer T, et al. The Effect of
Age and Duration of Disease on Airway Structure in Fatal Asthma.
Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med 2000; 162: 663-669.

(80) Springer C, Godfrey S, Picard E, et
al. Efficacy and Safety of Methacholine Bronchial Challenge
Performed by Auscultation in Young Asthmatic Children. Am. J.
Respir. Crit. Care Med., 2000;162: 857-860

(81) Rodrigo GJ, Rodriquez Verde M, Peregalli V, Rodrigo
C. Effects of short-term 28% and 100% oxygen on PaCO2 and peak
expiratory flow rate in acute asthma: a randomized trial. Chest
2003;124(4):1312-1317.

(82) Taube C, Kanniess F, Gronke L, Richter
K, Mucke M, Paasch K, Eichler G, Jorres RA, Magnussen H.
Reproducibility of forced inspiratory and expiratory volumes
after bronchodilation in patients with COPD or asthma. Respir Med
2003;97(5):568-577.

(83) Tunnicliffe WS, Harrison RM, Kelly FJ,
Dunster C, Ayres JG. The effect of sulphurous air pollutant
exposures on symptoms, lung function, exhaled nitric oxide, and
nasal epithelial lining fluid antioxidant concentrations in
normal and asthmatic adults. Occup Environ Med
2003;60(11):e15.

(84) Roussos A, Koursarakos P, Patsopoulos D, Gerogianni
I, Philippou N. Increased prevalence of irritable bowel syndrome
in patients with bronchial asthma. Respir Med
2003;97(1):75-79.

(85) Mitsunobu F, Ashida K, Hosaki
Y, et al. Complexity of Terminal Airspace Geometry
Assessed by Computed Tomography in Asthma. Am J Respir
Crit Care Med 2003;167: 411-417.

(86) Thoonen B, Schermer T,Molema J,
et al. Self-management of
asthma in general practice,
asthma control and quality of life: a randomised
controlled trial. Thorax 2003; 58:30-36(87) Holtzman M. Drug
Development for Asthma. American Journal of Respiratory Cell and
Molecular Biology 2003; 29: 163-171.

(88) Lemanske R, Sorkness C, Pharm E, et
al. Inhaled Corticosteroid Reduction and Elimination in Patients
With Persistent Asthma Receiving Salmeterol.
JAMA. 2001;285:2594-2603

(89) Weiss S, Lake S, Silverman E, et
al. Asthma Steroid Pharmacogenetics A Study Strategy to
Identify Replicated Treatment Responses. The Proceedings of
the American Thoracic Society 1:364-367 (2004).

(90) Goldsobel A. Inhaled Corticosteroid
Reduction and Elimination in Patients with Persistent Asthma
Receiving Salmeterol (SLIC). Pediatrics 2002; 110:
457-458

(91) Walters EH, Walters JA, Gibson MD.
Inhaled long acting beta agnonists for stable chronic asthma.
Archives of Disease in Childhood Education and Practice Edition
2004;89: 80.

(92) Lehrer P, Vaschillo E, Shou E, et
al. Biofeedback Treatment for Asthma. Chest.
2004;126:352-361.(93) Hawkins G, McMahon A, Twaddle S, et al.
Stepping down inhaled corticosteroids in asthma: randomised
controlled trial. BMJ  2003;326:1115 

(94) O'Byrne P. Pharmacologic Interventions
to Reduce the Risk of Asthma Exacerbations. The Proceedings of
the American Thoracic Society 2004 ;1:105-108.

(95) Sven D, Kerstin M, Barbro D, et al.
Improvement of Aspirin-Intolerant Asthma by Montelukast, a
Leukotriene Antagonist. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med
2002; 165: 9-14.

(96) Douwes J, Pearce N. Asthma and the westernization
"package". International Journal of Epidemiology
2002;31:1098-1102

(97) Suissa S, Boivin J, Horwitz R,
et al. A cohort analysis of excess mortality in
asthma and the use of inhaled beta-agonists. Am.
J. Respir. Crit. Care Med 1994;149: 604-610.

(98) Buhl R, Stephen G. Current and Future
Pharmacologic Therapy of Exacerbations in Chronic Obstructive
Pulmonary Disease and Asthma. The Proceedings of the American
Thoracic Society 2004;1:136-142.

(99) Cartier J, Robichaud P, Boutin H, et al.
Influence on asthma morbidity of asthma education programs based
on self-management plans following treatment optimization. Am. J.
Respir. Crit. Care Med 1997;155: 1509-1514..

(99) www.enciclopedia.us.es/index

(100) Aligne C, Auinger P, Byrd P, et al.
Risk Factors for Pediatric Asthma . Contributions of Poverty,
Race, and Urban Residence. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med. 2000;
162: 873-877.

(101) Forastiere F, Balmes J, Scarincini M,
et al. Occupation, Asthma, and Chronic Respiratory Symptoms in a
Community Sample of Older Women. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med
1998;157: 1864-1870.

(102) Sherman C, Tosteson T, Tager
I, et al. Early childhood predictors of asthma. Am J
Epidemiol,1990;132: 83-95.

(103) Plaschke P, Janson C, Norrman E, et
al. Onset and Remission of Allergic Rhinitis and Asthma and the
Relationship with Atopic Sensitization and SmokingAm. J. Respir.
Crit. Care Med.2000;162: 920-924.

(104) Chaudhuri R, Livingston E,. McMahon A, et al.
Cigarette Smoking Impairs the Therapeutic Response to Oral
Corticosteroids in Chronic Asthma. Am J Respir Critical Care Med
2003; 168:1308-1311.

(105) Gilliand F, Yu-Fen L, Peters J.
Effects of Maternal Smoking during Pregnancy and Environmental
Tobacco Smoke on Asthma and Wheezing in Children. Am. J. Respir.
Crit. Care Med. 2001; 163: 429-436.

(106) Perzanowski E,
Rönmark E, Platts T, et al. Effect of Cat
and Dog Ownership on Sensitization and Development of
Asthma among Preteenage Children. Am J
Respir Critical Care Med 2002; 166: 696-702.

(107) Costa R, Cesar G,.Victora M, Menezes
A, et al Do Risk Factors for Childhood Infections and
Malnutrition Protect Against Asthma? American Journal of Public
Health, 2003; 93: 1854-1886.

(108) Wong W, Lai K, Lam K, et al.
Prevalence, clinical spectrum and health care utilization of
gastro-oesophageal reflux disease in a Chinese population: a
population-based study. Aliment Pharmacol Ther
2003;18(6):595-604.

(109) Harding S, Guzzo M, Richter L. The
Prevalence of Gastroesophageal Reflux in Asthma Patients without
Reflux Symptoms. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med, 2002; 162:
34-39.

(110) Kiljander T, Jukka O, Laitinen M. The
Prevalence of Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease in Adult
Asthmatics. Chest. 2004;126:1490-1494. (111) Holguin F, Mannino
D, Antó J,
et al. Country of Birth as a Risk Factor for Asthma among Mexican
Americans. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med.2002; 171:
103-108.

(112)
www.virtud.unal.edu.co/cursos/idea/t1-l1

(113) Mei L, Yue C, Villeneuve P, et al.
Gaseous Air Pollutants and Asthma Hospitalization of Children
with Low Household Income in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
Am J Epidemiol 2004; 159:294-303.

(114) Slaughter JC, Lumley T, Sheppard L,
et al. Effects of ambient air pollution on symptom severity and
medication use in children with asthma. Ann Allergy Asthma
Immunol 2003;91(4):346-353.

(115) Barnes P. New Concepts in the
pathogenesis of bronchial hyperresponsiveness and Asthma. J
Allergy Clin Inmunol 1997; 83: 1013.

(116) Chapman I. The relationship between inflammation
and hyperreactivity of the airways in asthma. Clin Exp Allergy
1994;23:168-172.

(117) Busse WW. The relationship between viral
infectious and the onset of allergic diseases and Asthma. Clin
Exp Allergy 1996;31:11-15.

(118) Gilliland F , Kiros T,
Berhane Y, et al. Children"s Lung Function and
Antioxidant Vitamin, Fruit, Juice, and Vegetable Intake. Am J
Epidemiol 2003; 158:576-584

(119) Raida I, Harik K, Muller D, et al.
Serum Vitamin Levels and the Risk of Asthma in Children. Am J
Epidemiol 2004; 159:351-357.

(120) Litonjua A, Carey V, Harriet  A,
et al. Parental History and the Risk for Childhood Asthma Does
Mother Confer More Risk than Father? Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care
Med. 1998; 158: 176-181.

(121) Williams S, Schmidt D, Redd S, et al.
Key clinical activities for quality asthma care. Recommendations
of the National Asthma Education and Prevention Program. MMWR
Recomm Rep 2003;52(RR-6):1-8.

(122) Kiros B, McConell R, Gilliland F, et
al. Sex-specific Effects of Asthma on Pulmonary Function in
Children. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med 2000; 163:
1723-1730.

(123) Tantisira KG, Litonjua A, Weiss S, et
al. Association of body mass with pulmonary function in the
Childhood Asthma Management Program (CAMP). Thorax
2003;58(12):1036-1041.

(124) Celedón J, Lyle J,
Litonjua A, et al. Body Mass Index and Asthma in Adults in
Families of Subjects with Asthma in Anqing, China. Am. J.
Respir. Crit. Care Med 2001; 164: 1835-1840.

(125) Frank D, Kiros B, Talat I. Obesity
and the Risk of Newly Diagnosed Asthma in School-age Children. Am
J Epidemiol 2003; 158:406-415.

(126) Jouni J, Ritva P, Maritta S.
Occupation and Asthma: A Population-based Incident Case-Control
Study. Am J Epidemiol 2003; 158:981-987.

(127) Abramson M, Bailey M, Couper F, et
al. Are Asthma Medications and Management Related to Deaths from
Asthma? Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care Med, 2001;
163:12-18.

(128) Leynaert B, Neuckirch C , Liard R, et
al. Quality of Life in Allergic Rhinitis and Asthma A
Population-based Study of Young Adults. Am. J. Respir. Crit. Care
Med 2000;162:1391-1396.

(129) Parker E, Israel BA,
Williams M, et al. Community action against asthma: examining the
partnership process of a community-based participatory research
project. J Gen Intern Med 2003;18(7):558-567.

(130) Slaughter JC, Lumley T, Sheppard L,
Koenig JQ, Shapiro GG. Effects of ambient air pollution on
symptom severity and medication use in children with asthma. Ann
Allergy Asthma Immunol 2003;91(4):346-353.

(131) Willemse BW, Toelle BG, Li JS, Shah
S, Peat JK. Use of a paper disposable cup as a spacer is
effective for the first-aid management of asthma. Respir Med
2003;97(1):86-89.

(132) Wolf FM, Guevara JP, Grum CM, Clark NM, Cates CJ.
Educational interventions for asthma in children. Cochrane
Database Syst Rev 2003 (1)

Autor:

Analleli Manguilar
León