Foundations of twentieth century art

The origin of the
avant-gards

In order to understand Twentieth Century Art today, it
is necessary to consider two issues: the subject who develops it
and the definition of art.

Regarding the creative works, we can consider the
subject of that time in two aspects: firstly, because of the need
for more accurate definitions, that is to say, an increasing
faith in science and reason, and secondly, because it considers
formal issues before its content.

As for art, we can provide the following definition: in
its external aspect, it is the transformation of matter through
the use of a technique in order to represent something, and in
its internal aspect, it is the aspiration of presenting us with
an idea.

When Maurice Denis established that a picture, before
being a depiction of a scene, was a flat surface covered with
colors, he was not referring to a definition of a work of art,
but to the necessity of studying the work of art according to the
principles of his contemporaries, namely based upon rational and
ideological principles.

Abstract painting appeared during the same period as
cubism and fauvism, but it caused more commotion than these other
styles in which one could observe representation, and it was
possible to see a certain continuity with the history of
figurative painting. This is why expressionism and cubism seemed
to have been historically justified. Abstract art did not make
reference to any object from reality, and it was not possible to
understand a type of art that did not consider the world
surrounding us.

But in reality, these three new styles had nothing to do
with the history of painting, which had just made a break in the
evolution of art, in which the original interest of painting –
that of representing reality surrounding us – was abandoned in
order to study how that representation was produced through the
work of art.

Abstract painting deals with the first of the aspects we
included in the definition of a work of art: the matter, and
particularly with one of its qualities, the color. Just as its
name indicates, it is an abstraction of painting, which does not
take into account the other aspects of art: object and technique.
Abstract painting focuses on just one aspect, and as any science,
it has to focus on one aspect in order to be analyzed without the
influence of other qualities, which would alter it, thus making
it difficult to identify the particular properties of the
color.

We have mentioned that cubism, in some way, seemed to be
part of tradition due to its slightly figurative content. But the
foundation of this style is still a mystery, until now that we
will discover that it deals with the second condition of a work
of art: the technique of representation. Representation had been
for many years the mere grouping of figures until perspective was
discovered during the Renaissance. But at the beginning of the
Twentieth Century representation was not a technical difficulty,
it was possible to represent anything in any style. Now it was a
scientific issue, because now the problem was not how to carry
out the representation but to know the elements that make a
representation possible: form, elements, and the relative
positions of the bodies. Therefore cubism is the study of the
techniques of representation.

We include fauvism as part of the expressionist movement
because they are closely related (it is not other than the French
interpretation of expressionism), and it is necessary to do so
because this style, along with The Bridge and The Blue Rider
constitute the ways to represent the overcoming of the drama of
life through the application of social issues to problematic
situations, thus showing us that society provides the answers we
are looking for. As it is understood, we are faced with the
analysis carried out by the artists from the beginning of the
last century of the attitude put forth by the figure depicted in
the work of art.

In addition to Hegel"s definition of work of art (idea,
matter and figure), we have added the technique, and to the three
material conditions needed for the existence of a work of art
(matter, technique and representation), it corresponds them
precisely three different studies that the artists unconsciously
carried out methodically according to the needs of their time:
science and society.

The study to achieve this conclusion was carried out by
the artists by unconsciously applying the most evident
philosophical principles, those principles of reason put forth by
Schopenhauer in his work "On the Fourfold Root of the Principle
of Sufficient Reason". From all of this, what is more evident and
simple to understand is that nothing occurs without a cause, and
thus we have come to realize the causes of the artistic trends
that developed the first avant-gardes, demonstrating that they
conform a whole, and explaining the need to develop all of these
trends almost simultaneously, since they were analysing the
creation of a work of art from a scientific
perspective.

Scientism

In this article a case is made for the consideration of
Twentieth Century art as a scientific analysis of the work of
art.

The avant-gardes develop an analysis of the work of art
in order to determine the essence of art. The variety of styles
that the three main trends generate, are a consequence of the
absolute necessity to determine the elements involved in the
creation of a work of art. Because the avant-gardes were
generated through a technical analysis, we consider that their
origin corresponds to a scientific tendency of art.

Just as we understand that the orbits of the planets are
determined by their own characteristics, and that, inversely, the
character of our children is determined by the order of their
birth, Twentieth Century art trends occupy a place and hold
certain properties imposed by one law: that of applying
philosophical principles to art, something that philosophy or
criticism has not even imagined about.

In his book "On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of
Sufficient Reason", Schopenhauer explains that nothing occurs
without a cause. A cause is all that necessarily produces an
effect. The knowledge we derive from a phenomenon occurs thanks
to three abilities the human being possesses: sensibility,
instinct and reason. Sensibility allows us to know a priori the
qualities of an object: its position in space and time. Instinct
allows us to know physical phenomena, what is identified through
experience or perception of the senses. And reason allows us to
draw conclusions by the use of judgment and concepts. Therefore,
a person has at its disposal three different kinds of information
to understand each phenomenon, which is known as the Principle of
Sufficient Reason (P.S.R.) of being, becoming and knowing. The
fourth root that Schopenhauer studies are motives, which
only exist together with consciousness, and therefore are only
possessed by humans. When we applied this theory to Twentieth
Century art, we realize that it can explain it, and this is
because scientific analysis has been widespread within the
subject and therefore manifested in his actions.

The definition of art, which comprises idea, matter,
figure and technique, corresponds with the forms of knowledge:
geometry, transformation, knowledge and action.

The artistic styles developed at the beginning of the
Twentieth Century were completely determined when art accepted
the principle that "everything has to be understandable in order
to be understood"1, once the artist applied the scientific
principles to art. As we have already mentioned, the study
focused on the visible aspects of the work of art, i.e., matter,
form and technique, and on to which the P.S.R. of becoming,
acting and knowing would be applied. At the same time, the
application of the three principles of reason to the first of
those qualities, matter, has a philosophical foundation, thus the
P.S.R. of knowing would permit us to understand the object as a
materialistic phenomenon which gave rise to Conceptual art.
Through the P.S.R. of becoming we know the current state of
matter, whose essence (or substance) is analyzed by Materialistic
art. Finally, the P.S.R. of being, which studies space and time
considerations, would deal with the transcendental aspects of
matter giving rise to Abstract art.

Likewise, the artist of the Twentieth Century will apply
these three principles to the second material aspect of the work
of art: the technique of representation, whose objective is to
assure that the work of art has a real connection to the reality
it attempts to depict and that it is captured as faithfully as
possible, so that it can be identified. In order to do this, the
artist will first study in depth the position of the figure in
space and time, secondly, the present configuration of the
figure, and thirdly, the composition of the figure; all this
according to the P.S.R. of being, becoming and knowing. We have
solved the enigma that has preoccupied Twentieth Century
intellectuals, the ultimate meaning of cubism: Trying to
determine how the artist develops his representations is
therefore the application of the principle of reason of knowing
to the technical phase of the material construction of the work
of art. According to the principle of reason, its forms of
knowledge, i.e., the geometrical, analytic and synthetic,
correspond to the study of each of the cases being
developed.

Both the study of the matter and that of the technique
of representation deal with the same issues: geometry or the
position in space; changes in the matter or its current limits;
and through the object which it is depicted or by the elements
that conform it. Each study does it in its own convenient way but
always concerning the same issues.

The third aspect studied by scientific art is the figure
it represents. This would be the application of the P.S.R. of
acting, of the motivation in its outer meaning, since what is
perceptible of this type of motivation is expression, which is
what is perceived and depicted. The act that carries out and that
produces the image that is transmitted, that is to say what is
known through empirical perception, is the consequence of
motives. The result of applying theory to art is the
expressionism, laden with social content. We can also identify,
but because of different reasons, its three forms in the French
fauvism, the Blue Rider and the Bridge; that would become the
ultimate expressionism.

Therefore, the avant-gardes resulting from
a scientific tendency, because they constitute a rational
approach to art, have generated three different movements
according to the constructive qualities contemplated in each work
of art. When the artist has dealt with matter, he has done so
unconsciously within a trend we could call "material" trend. When
the technique of representation becomes the object of the
analysis, then we are dealing with a "technicist" trend. And when
we analyze the attitudes adopted by the depicted figures, then we
are dealing with a "figurist" trend, in which an authentic
representation seems to exist. Even though this trend, under
closer examination, is also the theoretical study of such
attitudes and not the representation of a scene.

1. Note: F. Nietzsche, "Socrates and
Tragedy":

When the Greek tragedy begun declining,
Euripides begun looking for a transformation in his work since
his prior works were not being understood. Therefore he invented
well defined characters but not as profound as those of Aeschylus
and Sophocles. His heroes were depicted just as they were, but
they were not more than this representation.

The Technicist
Trend: Cubism

We intend to take a closer look at the definition of
cubism by applying the philosophical principles that already have
been used to interpret Twentieth Century art.

The technique of representation analyses the conditions
of creation which make possible to identify the work of art
within a given reality; hence what is analyzed is: the relative
position of the objects, their spatial situation; the necessary
interrelated brush strokes which delimit the forms depicted; and
finally, the elements that comprise either the objects being
considered or the proposed representation.

Because in Cubism the subject depicted had little value
this study started by analyzing the forms, of which their volumes
were simplified to their simplest expressions. Within geometric
cubism the object is treated solely as a body, to which one must
assign a place within the representation that has been done
beforehand in a canvas that was originally a flat
surface.

The flatness represented by cubism
corresponds to an effect, resulting from the study of the
pictorial work that was on a single plane. Painters using other
styles also produce this flat representation precisely because
they are analyzing a previous work of art. The cubes painted by
Braque and Picasso at L"Estaque and Horta de Ebro, respectively,
are not part of the analytic period in which they are often
included, because this period studies another aspect, which we
will see below

Analytic cubism studies the arrangement of
forms. It is also not interested in the objects themselves, and
this is demonstrated by the use of similar colors throughout the
painting. For the purpose of the study, it is only interested in
the lines delimiting the forms depicted but not in relation to
the continual lines that conform the object, and in this study
there is no distinction between the lines of each object and the
lines of the other objects.

Synthetic cubism is precisely the opposite of the
previous examples: it is interested in determining the kind of
elements conforming the objects that will be considered. This is
why in this case color is essential; it is the most evident way
to highlight the identified elements. A guitar is depicted with
several colors, each of which identifies not a form or a
position, but one element of the object that needs a personalized
treatment. Nonetheless, pure colors predominate because the
object is not important as a representation but as a grouping of
elements, and so there is no need for exact forms since even the
forms lack importance in the study of the parts.

Later on, for instance, in "The Dance" (1925) or in
"Musicians in Masks" (1921), synthetic cubism will deal with
figures, or bodies, being depicted, thus continuing the premature
path that had been started in 1915 with Harlequin, developing a
comprehensive representation. Mostly during the 1920"s, it would
undertake the practical task of using the new technique, that of
creating representations of reality, once the theoretical study
had been finished which would permit an absolute knowledge of the
technique of representation.

Other authors will focus on the
representation. But Picasso"s cubism is essentially a theoretical
study, and now that the meaning of cubism is understood, it is
possible to see that Picasso was more of a purist and more
profound than the others because he was more sensitive in
understanding what had to be done in each phase. But we cannot
deny Braque"s own merits – that of outlining the way in
which to study Synthetic cubism.

We see that in Cubism, a movement
pertaining to a trend we call "technicist" due to the analysis of
the technique of representation, there are also, coincidentally,
three forms: the initial, the analytical and the synthetic; in
which geometry, form and composition are studied.

The Material
Tendency

I. Movements

Amongst the three physical aspects that conform the work
of art, matter is the initial one. The application of the
principles of reason to matter should be limited to three, since
the fourth, motivation, is inapplicable. But the other three, the
Principles of Sufficient Reason (P.S.R.) of being, becoming and
knowing, are applied to matter as literally as Schopenhauer
exposed it in his work about this issue. Thereby, the P.S.R. of
being, that deals with geometry and mathematics, the concepts
that arise before every phenomenon, or, if one prefers, about
space and time, affects the perceptual aspect of the visual arts
with respect to the first notions: geometry and space. With
regard to time and mathematics, they will affect other art forms.
There is an unquestionable link between light and sound, since
both allow an almost immediate understanding of the world. But
the relationship that has been attempted to establish between
painting and music makes no rational sense. The color we perceive
from the material work is that of matter, or, if preferred, of
the constructive element or the depicted element. Therefore, it
is not light. Furthermore, this would imply denying the other
aspects of the work of art -technique and form. In case of being
true, this definition could be applied to any work of visual art.
Therefore the relationship between music and painting would not
be limited to abstract painting, or exclusively to painting, but
to any form of art that incorporates a visual art component, that
it is to say, perceptible through observation; since the
reference made to light and music could then be applied
metaphorically to any perceptible element in the universe. This
lack of exclusivity in the supposed relationship between music
and painting should settle once and for all that interpretation
of Abstract art. In any case, Abstract art would correspond to
the bass in music; composition corresponds to harmony; and form
corresponds to melody. Thus Abstract art would be placed in an
inferior category than classical art, which justifiably was
called Fine Arts.

Indeed, Abstract painting represents the
application of the principle of reason of being to the first of
the elements of the work of art, matter, which in turn would
correspond to the P.S.R. of being of the work of art. We cannot
forget that fortuity constitutes an infinite array and therefore
there would also be an infinite array of explications. We must
not try to find the value of Abstract art in a direct relation to
intentionality, as established by light and sound, but with the
sublime; in the perception of the immensity of the universe,
whether of its vastness or its power, and of the dynamic or
mathematical sublime, according to how we understand the work of
art, as a representation of the universe or an immense space but
limited, that in any case exceeds our understanding. In fact,
Abstract painting has a lot in common with Romanticism, in which
feelings are aroused by intuition and not by sensibility:
mediate, through understanding; and non immediate, through
feeling or direct knowledge of intentionality.

Material art represents the application of the P.S.R. of
becoming to the work of art. It is simply about representing the
state matter has reached in this place and time as a consequence
of fortuity: about the forces of nature acting upon matter. And
just as Schopenhauer explains to us about the changes of water
produced by external circumstances when trying to explain "the
idea"–showing it as liquid, snow, steam, still, evaporating or
as rain. In this way the artist depicts the state of matter in a
place and time.

Similarly, Conceptual art expresses its perception of
the universe. It is, as you might have guessed the application of
the P.S.R. of knowing to the work of art. And we say it is
similar to Material art because it identifies the element in
which matter manifests itself. For instance, water in a liquid
state can be depicted as a river or lake; in a gas state, as a
cloud; and in a solid state, as snowflakes or icicles.

These three movements of the material tendency
correspond to three aspects of a same issue; knowledge through
three aspects of the same phenomenon, the effect that has been
produced by natural forces acting upon matter. This is to say: it
is not about three different issues but three different aspects
of the same issue that scientific research shows separately as a
desperate attempt by human beings to understand the origin of
things through the identification of the smallest of its
components. Nonetheless, we will never get to know time, space,
matter and the natural forces but through their manifestations.
This is why, before the Twentieth Century, we used art in order
to understand our existence.

II. Concerning the Material in
Art

Kandinsky, as well as other artists before him, like
Gauguin, tried to establish a connection between painting and
music, probably with the intention of raising the status of
painting to that of music in order to equal the sensibility that
differentiates one art from the other. This squaring of the
circle by the artistic community shows the feeling of inferiority
felt by painters in relation to musicians. Since this pretension,
as we will see, would mean squaring the circle.

Light is an element that reveals to us the existence of
other objects and their positions (the separation existing
amongst the objects). But light does not reveal itself, and this
can be proven in space where even though there is light, it is
not perceived until it finds an element and reveals us its
existence, and with this information we become aware of the
existence of light. The painting, which is a material object,
reveals itself thanks to the light; therefore our awareness of
the painting is a mediate one. On the other hand, sound is also
an immaterial object that can reveal itself to us directly by its
own accord. Music is the manipulation of sound in order to create
art. Music is sound itself, and because it reveals itself, it
becomes immediate awareness; therefore we have already been able
to establish the first insurmountable difference between painting
and music.

The awareness of the painting is made through a complete
and simultaneous perception of the work of art. Sound is
perceived through the successive vibrations produced in the air.
The a priori concepts of awareness are space and time, which
would be related to geometry and mathematics. Painting would be
related to space, and music to time. Relating painting with music
would be like establishing a link between space and time, or if
preferred, transforming geometry into numerical successions.
Kandinsky"s appreciations in his work "Concerning the Spiritual
in Art" about form and color are valid but they are not as
transcendental or profound as he pretends them to be and they do
not produce the emotional effects he assures. His theory begins
with the mistaken notion of pretending to sublimate Geometry into
time, but if he could establish this connection, then one of the
a priori concepts would not be as such and would be the result of
the later, thus Kandinsky would not be doing philosophy but
destroying Kant.

If in Kandinsky"s work what is represented depicts
notes, then we should understand his paintings as scores. If
these representations had a symbolic meaning, then his paintings
would be hieroglyphics. In either case, we would not find
ourselves in front of works of art. Kandinsky should have been
born in an epoch such as the Renaissance in which he could have
been able to fully express all his feelings. But no matter in
which epoch a painter lives, he cannot work thinking on the
relative value of his art with regard to others. If he thinks
that other forms of art are superior, then he should change his
profession because it would be impossible to give a new meaning
to painting.

There is no relation between color and sound. The only
relationship that exists between light and sound is as primal
forms of belonging to the Principle of Sufficient Reason, that
is, of being. The first spontaneous statements written by
Nietzsche received harsh criticism by an unknown author. His
writing reveals a bias towards the regime, unjustifiable personal
disqualifications and opposition to Nietzsche"s cultural values.
Karl Hillebrand"s analysis was more precise; he recognized the
values defended by Nietzsche, he appreciated the aspects that had
not been analyzed and remarked the inadequate tenor of some of
his comments. Thanks to him, Nietzsche learned to appreciate
Hegel"s philosophy, whom he criticized because of his sympathy
for Schopenhauer. But it is difficult for someone to make a calm
assessment since normal behavior is to make exasperated
criticism.

 The
Figurative Tendency: Expressionism 

I. Introduction

The figurative tendency cannot be explained through the
three principles of reason as we did with the material and
technicist tendencies. Once we have begun an analysis of
Twentieth Century art as a scientific analysis of the previous
work of art we said we would do so according to the three
principles of reason, because motivation was the artist"s
motivation to introduce an idea that was outside the analyzed
work, and that in the twentieth century what was explained is the
material origin of the work of art.

Within the scientific tendency, the figurative tendency
cannot be explained solely as a flat representation of the human
figures, the third material element of the work of art. This
tendency analyses the depicted characters" attitudes, which
corresponds to the motivation of the models, different from the
artist"s motivation that we mentioned above, and each of which is
represented exclusively in each of the movements generated by
this tendency. The different characters" attitudes that can be
presented are once again introduced by philosophy. According to
this, human beings can react to three kinds of situations that
arise from human evil, chance or fate, and from the subjects"
relative position, which are the causes of the controversial
situation. All of which can be derived from the analysis of
tragedy.

  II. The Blue Rider"s
Expressionism

In order to analyze the essence of this movement we will
revise Karl Ruhrberg"s book, and in particular, his descriptions
on Franz Marc"s work2: 

– He was also looking for the "universal painting", in
which life dilemmas could be solved in a creative harmony.
 

– Deep down Marc was a sad and melancholic man, an
idealist with religious inspirations who suffered with
imperfection, or the world"s impurity and the loss of
metaphysical meaning.  

– He wished that the depicted ideas would be capable of
stimulating the community.

  Yet we do not agree when he says: "it would
be a mistake to consider these artists, who did not want to be
reformers nor revolutionaries, as a group of rational
intellectuals"3. In fact, their paintings show an idealized world
in which dilemmas have been solved, but in contrast to The
Bridge, the Blue Rider deals with problems related to chance,
which cannot be faced directly, nonetheless they went to war
looking for an idealized world that – and in accordance
with all the expressionist groups—this was achieved either
by accepting their proposals or else by them having to prevail by
the use of force.

Kandinsky was a spiritual and idealist being who
was born in an epoch antagonist to his being, and maybe it was
this situation that revealed all his sensibility. His desire for
a perfect world led him to the abstraction of the world and to
depict these ideas in his works, and because of their highly
spiritual nature they lost their figurative iconic meaning. Being
aloof of the world led him to a sort of artistic
asceticism. 

Even though, the origin of expressionism is based upon
the study of the attitude, and in the case of the Blue Rider, in
the hope to overcome the destiny"s obstacles which could be the
object of a more technical analysis. August Macke"s work
differs from that of the two other artists because of the
importance given to the figures. This fact plus Kandinsky"s
research of colour and form, and the simple presentations of
Franz Marc"s –along with the idea that in groups they
either tend to an absolute unity (as happened at the beginning of
the Bridge) or to the greatest possible distances without
escaping it—lead us to a certain extent to see a
geometrical orientation in Franz Marc, a technicist orientation
in Kandinsky, and a figurative one in August Macke.

  III. The Bridge"s
Expressionism

Even Ruhrberg considers that Expressionism was a
revolutionary movement: "The German Expressionism from the
beginning of the century was a socially engaged art"4, and then
he repeats that: "German Expressionism was political from its
origins"5. In order to avoid confusion with respect to the
theoretical analysis of Expressionism, we must distinguish
between its meaning and the use given to it by the artists. The
Expressionist movement analyses the figure"s role with respect to
their situations. The study of situations facing other beings
would have meant acknowledging humanity, but instead and as a
consequence it offers the existence of ideological proposals that
have been already applied or which must be applied.

 Kirchner"s work is different from most of the
expressionists" because of its violence, not just because of the
violence of its brushes but of the meaning of his work. The
difference with the other painters is that they present us with
an idealized world where problems have been overcome. This
universal peace they advocated would be the result of the triumph
of the proposals they presented to society in order to be
accepted either in good or bad fate. Many of them ended up taking
up arms as an attempt to demonstrate that their ideas were so
valuable that it was worth fighting and dying for them if
necessary. Some of them died, and the ones that survived were
traumatized by experiences that must have made them realize the
division existing between their ideals and reality, either
because of the social results they evoked or by the ease of its
implementation. But, in reality, the artist"s work is to create
art.

The figurative orientation was present in all of them
since they all shared, when they first met to form the group,
their artistic experiences, and in order to show coherence
between their thoughts and acts they established amongst
themselves the universal brotherhood they ideologically
advocated. Perhaps, considering the general quality of his work
and the stylistic continuity he kept after the dissolution of the
group, Kirchner was the one who contributed the most. Because of
this he was convinced of the brotherhood"s value and this is how
the dissolution of the group is understood. Since then until the
war, Kirchner radicalized his position at least that of the
artist, until another reality –that of war- also destroyed
that strength that he had ideally conferred upon
himself.

 When comparing Heckel"s and Muller"s delicate
baths and the sweetness depicted by the characters with
Kirchner"s threatening figures, there is more than just an
aesthetic difference. We could ask ourselves to what extent these
figures do not depict the artist"s own feelings and those figures
depict a certain arrogance and strength which is nothing but
Kirchner"s confidence in his creative drive, convinced that with
or without the group, he could achieve as many results, and also
the issue of whether or not his old mates could get along without
his guidance. Through this artistic conviction he would have
backed up his ideological position.

  The self-imposed artistic demand placed by
Kirchner and the symbolic meaning of his compositions makes us
perceive a certain technicist tint. In Schmidt-Rottluff"s
work, because of his perspectives of buildings we could
understand -to some extent, and to show stylistic differences
within the group- a greater tendency towards geometry rather than
towards the figure or the technique. Heckel"s and Muller"s work
would become figurative.

 IV. Fauvism

Matisse aspired to an existence where all evil would not
exist. "I dream of an art of balance, of purity and serenity
devoid of troubling or depressing subject matters, an art that
could be a calming influence, a mental tranquilizer…"6 He
was more coherent in his stands, and did not advocate using force
to convince humanity. "The joy of living" should have been the
origin of humanity"s kindness. That kindness was reflected
specially in his sculptures but also in his paintings, in the
softness of his forms and colours, especially if we compare them
with German works, since their origin lies in their capability
for aggression.

Compared with his fellow countrymen, these differences
were less evident, but it is still possible to observe in his
best works the uniformity in composition and the use of flat
colours. As an expressionist, he is delicate and independent of
his personal quality. We could consider French fauvists as
classical compared with German expressionists. They are more
daring in relation to classical works; Germans, on the other
hand, are more daring in their intentions. French fauvists" works
are related to cultural references, Germans" to a political
reference. Differences between France and Germany lie in a
difference with respect to the intentionality of their actions.
The former aims at transforming society through tradition and
culture, and the latter through power.

  Therefore, fauvism is essentially
figurative. Puntillism would add the technicist influence, and a
materialistic and geometrical expression would only be
appreciated through Rouault"s pictorial work and in his
schematized faces, which imitate primitive art. The French
cultural tradition prevents the expression to adopt extreme
positions.

 Notes:

1.- This article is part of a series of essays
where the avant-garde is analyzed.

2.- Karl Ruhrberg, Arte del siglo XX (Art of the
Twentieth Century), Taschen Publishing House, Ingo F. Walther
Edition, 2005, p. 108.

3.- Ibid. p. 102.

4.- Ibid. p. 54.

5.- Ibid. p. 54.

6.- Ibid. p. 37.

Translated by

Mónica Barros

Enviado por:

Mario Rodríguez
Guerras