Bibliografía:
"Habilidades Fìsicas en las Organizaciones y
Análisis de las Tareas" –
Editado por The Organization Development Institute International,
Latinamerica – 2005.
Autor: Eric Gaynor Butterfield – RODP
Este es un tema al que se le ha prestado muy poca
atención en las organizaciones y empresas que
operan dentro de las culturas latinoamericanas. Y sin embargo
¿Quién no ha de reconocer que la eficiencia
organizacional está en gran medida sujeta a que las tareas
a desarrollar cuenten con personas físicamente
aptas?
Como Frederick Taylor
("Scientific Management"; Harper & Row – 1947) es
usualmente denostado y criticado tanto por la academia, la
dirigencia sindical, la corporación política, y los
sindicatos en
los distintos países al sur del Río Grande, poca o
nula aplicación se ha realizado en las empresas
latinoamericanas de los conceptos y prácticas que ha
realizado este curioso e innovador investigador de las acciones
– principalmente motrices – que despliegan las
personas en las empresas.
Algunas personas piensan que las habilidades
físicas han dejado de ser importantes en las
organizaciones y emprendimientos modernos. A ellos les sugerimos
que tengan en cuenta la importancia que tuvieron a partir del
lanzamiento del primer Sputnik soviético realizado en el
año 1957. Como consecuencia de la importancia de las
habilidades físicas en el programa
espacial, se realizaron comparaciones a nivel mundial en
relación con los niveles físicos de aptitud de los
distintos jóvenes norteamericanos.
Los resultados mostraron que los jóvenes
norteamericanos estaban substancialmente en desventaja respecto
de sus pares extranjeros. Como consecuencia de estos resultados
se llevó a cabo un programa a nivel nacional para evaluar
las habilidades físicas que está aún en
vigencia y que responde directamente y bajo los auspicios del
Presidente de Los Estados Unidos de
Norteamérica.
Podemos señalar que de todas las variables que
se relacionan con las habilidades físicas para la
realización de una tarea, una de las principales tiene que
ver con la "división del trabajo".
Existe la concepción generalizada de que la
división del trabajo y el foco en las habilidades
físicas – como así también la
diferencia entre los participantes organizacionales que piensan y
deciden como se deben hacer las cosas respecto de aquellos que
solamente tienen que hacer. También se asocia a la
división del trabajo con el tamaño de la empresa
asumiendo que las organizaciones grandes son las únicas
que tienen una alta división del trabajo. No encontramos
mucha evidencia de ambas proposiciones.
En primer lugar es de hacer notar que en el siglo X la
industria
textil inglesa ya contaba con una alta división del
trabajo, lo que se remonta a más de 900 años antes
del trabajo pionero de Taylor. Por otro lado J. Litterer ("The
analysis of organizations"; Wiley – 1965) demuestra que
existen distintos motivos que justifican aplicar el principio de
división del trabajo independientemente del tamaño
de la
organización.
En primer lugar existen limitaciones físicas que
hacen imposible que una sola persona pueda
realizar todas las tareas y una segunda restricción tiene
que ver con los límites en
cuanto al conocimiento
necesario para la realización de la tarea. Y el tercer
aspecto tiene que ver con el hecho que la división del
trabajo permite alcanzar niveles mayores de efectividad y
eficiencia.
Se le adjudica a Adam Smith
(1776) la denominación de "división del trabajo"
quien a su vez también sugiere que existen tres razones
principales que permiten alcanzar una mayor productividad
como resultado de la división del trabajo. Ellas son: 1.
aumenta el nivel de destreza del empleado; 2. no existe
pérdida de tiempo en
relación con el pase de una tarea a la siguiente; y 3.
promueve el desarrollo de
mejoras e inventos como
así también el uso de nuevos equipos y maquinarias,
las que a su vez han de aumentar la productividad.
Adam Smith muestra como a
través de la producción de "pins" una fábrica
está en condiciones de producir hasta 4800 unidades por
día, mientras que si cada empleado se dedicara a fabricar
un "pin" por sí solo, quizás no llegaría a
fabricar siquiera veinte de ellas y en algunas casos ni siquiera
uno sólo.
Para tener una idea más precisa de las tareas a
realizar – y los atributos físicos necesarios
– una tarea puede descomponerse en dos elementos
principales (J. Litterer; 1965 – ya citado):
a. la primera de ellas tiene que ver con el "alcance" de
la tarea / del trabajo a realizar que tiene que ver
principalmente con el grado de influencia que puede ejercer el
empleado respecto de su contexto de trabajo, pudiendo de
èsta manera realizar la tarea con mayor discrecionalidad
(y con menos control y
supervisión de terceros).
b. la segunda dimensión importante de las tareas
tiene que ver con el alcance de la tarea. Aquí el
incumbente realiza pocas tareas y repite el ciclo de trabajo
frecuentemente. Cuando se realizan operaciones
más variadas el ciclo de trabajo no se repite con tanta
frecuencia y el alcance es entonces mayor.
Existe una idea bastante generalizada en las culturas
latinoamericanas de que las personas son por lo general altamente
creativas – dentro de ellas – y prefieren por lo
general tareas más complejas que las que son repetitivas.
Existe un trabajo muy interesante que fue realizado en Maytag
donde E. H. Conant & M. D. Kilbridge ("An interdisciplinary
analysis of job enlargement: technology, costs, and behavioral
implications"; Industrial and Labor Relations Review, volume 18
– April 1965) quienes estudiaron las consecuencias y las
actitudes del
personal
asociadas con dos tipos distintos de trabajo: la
producción en línea o la producción en un
banco de
trabajo.
Los autores encuentran en este trabajo de campo que no
existe directa y positiva correlación a favor de una mayor
complejidad en el trabajo. Un
hallazgo interesante ha mostrado que la interacción social entre las personas era
mayor en los trabajos de "línea" que en aquellos trabajos
realizados "en bancos de
trabajo".
Esto sugiere que "agrandar" el trabajo de las personas
no siempre es la mejor opción en todos los casos. En este
sentido se sugiere tener en cuenta algunas de las conclusiones a
las que arribaron J. Biggane & P. Steward (Job enlargement: a
case study"; Bureau of Labor and Management, State University of
Iowa – 1963).
Estos autores destacan que "job enlargement" hace que la
tarea tenga más sentido para el trabajador y además
es más gratificante para él. Usualmente tiene un
efecto positivo en cuanto a la calidad del
trabajo. Pero por otro lado debemos reconocer que "job
enlargement" tiene un límite del cual no debemos
excedernos.
Los autores Alan Filley & Robert House ("Managerial
process and organizational behavior"; Scott, Foresman and Co.
– 1969) concluyen que: "It would appear that the policy at
Maytag was to enlarge jobs to a semi-skilled level rather than to
move to a skilled craft orientation. Enlarged jobs, at least of
the bench variety, require more space and duplicate equipment.
There are also some processes that must retain balanced assembly
or continuous production characteristics. Finally, since
retraining takes longer as skills levels are increased,
absenteeism and turnover are costly. Workers cannot be replaced
as easily as they can for routine assembly-line jobs."
El mito de la
creatividad y
de la preferencia por diseños de trabajo "agrandados" ha
sido muy bien ejemplificado por el Profesor
Philip Marcus (Eric Gaynor Butterfield; Paper: Sociology of
organizations" – 1973). El Dr. Marcus destacaba que a pesar del
aparente descontento de los trabajadores respecto de las
líneas de montaje automotriz, cualquier aviso solicitando
personal encontraba más postulantes que a cualquier otro
trabajo más creativo. Un hallazgo interesante en este
sentido tiene que ver con que cada vez parecen ser más las
personas que están tomando la decisión de "hacer un
trabajo con poco sentido", pero por otro lado se reservan horas
libres donde "hacen las cosas que le son significativas para su
persona" (Eric Gaynor Butterfield: Taller de "Satisfacción
en el trabajo"; Julio 1995).
Inicialmente uno de los principales trabajos de
Frederick Taylor ("Principles of scientific management"; New
york: Harper & Row – 1923) tuvo que ver con llegar a
conocer lo que sería la producción diaria de "un
trabajador de primera clase" que
representaría el estándar – o benchmark, en
la terminología de hoy en día – de
producción para los demás.
El "estudio de tiempos" de Taylor tuvo una
versión similar en los trabajos de Frank & Lillian
Gilbreth, quienes en lugar de hablar de tiempos, destacaron la
importancia de las herramientas
de "motion study". Una muy buena descripción de los "motion studies" es
realizada por W. Spriegel & C. Myers (eds.) en "Writings of
the Gilbreth`s"; homewood, IL:Irwin – 1953: Motion study is
"the science of eliminating wastefulness from using unnecessary,
ill-directed, and inefficient motions".
De acuerdo con éstos autores los seis pasos del
análisis de los "motion studies" de los hermanos Gilbreth,
son:
1. Ponga por escrito la "práctica actual"; como
se hace actualmente.
2. Enumere los distintos movimientos ("motions") que se
realizan.
3. Haga una lista de las distintas variables que
influyen sobre cada uno de los movimientos.
4. Ponga por escrito la mejor
práctica.
5. Enumere los distintos movimientos ("motions") que se
realizan.
6. Haga una lista de las distintas variables que
influyen sobre cada movimiento.
Roger Schank hace las siguientes observaciones en la
sección titulada: "Companies that get new people
productive faster will become more profitable. The ability to
train people at their home office locations
via a three-hour computer simulation is enormously appealing for
many reasons, not the least of which is turnover. Nothing
frustrates organization leaders more than spending a lot of money
flying people all over the place, getting them trained only to
see them leave a short time later, and then repeating the
process". Schank sugiere que en muy poco tiempo las empresas
PYMES han de
estar en condiciones de contar con software de entrenamiento
"virtual" a un costo muy bajo
relativamente (entre 500 y 1.000 dólares). Debido a su
particular enfoque pragmático el autor concluye que
el aprendizaje
en el trabajo (on the job learning) no va a desaparecer en el
siglo venidero; pero de todas maneras ha de tener que co-existir
con el aprendizaje
virtual.
En relación con la capacidad de innovar de las
organizaciones Sachiko Nonaka & Nobuko Takeuchi ("The
knowledge-creating company"; New York: Oxford University Press
– 1995) hacen algunas sugerencias que tanto los altos
directivos como también los empresarios y líderes
organizacionales, no deben descuidar: "To become
knowledge-creating companies, managers in the East and West need
to build and manage multiple conversions, spirals, and syntheses,
and not be content simple to carry out a unidimensional boeing
match. The key lies in multiple transformations across multiple
dimensions, or what we will call
hypertransformations".
In order to cope with the uncertainty Japanese companies
"are turning themselves into knowledge-creating companies on a
global scale. They will emerge stronger from the current
recession, since the seeds for continuous innovation have already
been sewn. Japanese companies have taught us that innovation can
be achieved by continuously creating new knowledge, disseminating
it widely through the organization, and embodying it quickly in
new technologies, products, and systems. This knowledge-creating
process is no longer an enigma. This process is also no longer
endemic to Japanese companies. It is universal".
Aquellos que piensan que la capacitación y el entrenamiento del
personal resulta algo muy caro, pueden intentar no tenerlo en
cuenta. Van a tener suficiente tiempo para descansar cuando se
encuentren sin trabajo o sin empresa (Eric
Gaynor Butterfield; Jornada de Capacitación, Buenos Aires
1995).
A estas alturas no faltará quien sugiera que:
"Ok, está muy bien. Ahora vuelve a ser necesario apreciar
la importancia de las habilidades físicas como
consecuencia de la carrera espacial, algo similar a lo que
sucedió hace casi un siglo atrás, pero dentro de
otros contextos".
Pero no todas las personas están involucradas con
los programas
espaciales. Quisiera en este sentido recordarles que todos
nosotros nos ponemos "en fila" bajo muchas situaciones de nuestro
quehacer diario. Lo hacemos en los Bancos ante cajeros
personales, y también a la salida de supermercados, o de
tiendas en shoppings. Y no nos sorprende encontrar a algún
Cliente que
está en una fila y decide en algún momento pasarse
a otra fila, puesto que aunque es novato en la observación de esa particular
situación, ha podido observar que alguien opera más
eficientemente que su par. Trabajos de campo han mostrado que las
habilidades físicas diferenciales entre las personas,
pueden llegar a producir performance más altas – a
igual remuneración – en el orden del 15 al 20
%.
Respecto del análisis de las tareas en los
puestos de trabajo podemos señalar que no se le ha dado
suficiente atención a pesar de las importantes
implicancias que tiene, puesto que se vincula con performance de
acuerdo a ciertos estándares (como lo son las ISO 9000, por
ejemplo) y además influye sobre los aspectos de seguridad y sus
consecuencias que incluyen fuertes implicancias legales que
pueden resultar disfuncionales para las empresas.
Una importante distinción es la que debemos
realizar entre el análisis de la tarea en el puesto y las
especificaciones del puesto ya que la primera de ellas pone foco
en la descripción de comportamientos en el puesto, que
resulta ser totalmente independiente de las
características que tienen las personas que ejecutan las
tareas. Las especificaciones del puesto tienen más que ver
con las características personales, que se presume son
necesarias para una performance exitosa.
Posiblemente E. J. Mc Cormick ("Job and task analysis";
en (ed.) D. Dunnette – Handbook of Industrial and
organizational psychology"; Chicago: Rand McNally – 1976)
ha sido una de las personas que más aportes ha realizado
en ésta particular área y de allí que hemos
de considerar como él lo ha definido. Para Mc Cormick , el
análisis del puesto tiene que ver con recoger información sobre los siguientes
aspectos:
a. comportamientos "job-oriented", como por ejemplo
lista de tareas del puesto y los procedimientos de
trabajo;
b. algunos comportamientos que tienen que ver con el
personal y que son de carácter más conceptual y abstracto
como es el caso, de la supervisión de otros, el
procesamiento de información, y la toma de
decisiones;
c. los comportamientos que se producen como consecuencia
de las interacciones que mantiene la persona con las máquinas,
los equipos, las herramientas y los materiales;
d. los métodos
relacionados con la apreciación y evaluación
de performance, tales como las tasas de error aceptables y los
niveles de productividad;
e. el contexto en el cual se realiza el trabajo, como es
el caso de las condiciones de trabajo, el sistema de
remuneraciones,
entre otros;
f. los requerimientos basados en el personal como por
ejemplo las destrezas, habilidades físicas y las
características de personalidad.
Distintos trabajos de campo muestran que en gran medida
las organizaciones, empresas y corporaciones dentro de las
distintas culturas latinoamericanas han comenzado a tener en
cuenta modelos
organizacionales "más modernos" pero no necesariamente
más efectivos, y no han considerado que el aprendizaje es
acumulativo en lugar de sustitutivo. Por esto queremos decir que
desconocer la importancia de las habilidades físicas y las
contribuciones de la administración
científica le pueden estar costando muy caro a las
organizaciones dentro de las distintas culturas
latinoamericanas.
Los dirigentes Chinos, sus gobernantes, empresarios y
líderes han obtenido ingentes beneficios como resultado de
la aplicación de técnicas,
modelos, principios y
atributos que se relacionan con un modelo
organizacional que, dentro de algunas industrias,
aún las habilidades físicas siguen siendo muy
importantes para obtener una ventaja competitiva. Y esto no
quiere decir que no tengan en cuenta que dentro de otros modelos
organizativos las habilidades mentales y conceptuales
quizás sean más importantes que las
físicas.
Es por ello que ponemos a disposición de los
lectores interesados, distintos materiales relacionados con la
importancia de las habilidades físicas y como ellas se
relacionan con el diseño
del trabajo en las organizaciones y empresas. Muchos empresarios
gozan de una ventaja competitiva, aún hoy en día,
exclusivamente por tener en cuenta estos – aparentemente
simples – aspectos.
Algunos de los trabajos principales son detallados a
continuación que representan una Bibliografía "inicial"
esperando poder
aumentarla y consolidarla con la participación de ustedes.
Muchas gracias por compartir.
Eric Gaynor Butterfield – Presidente
The Organization Development Institute International,
Latin America
Board Member of The Organization Development Institute
– Worldwide
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Espero que esta Bibliografía – en gran
medida de tipo incompleta sobre esta particular temática
– sea de utilidad para los
directivos de organizaciones como así también de
empresarios, para ayudar a que sus empresas sean más
competitivas.
Muchas gracias por compartir.
Eric Gaynor Butterfield (RODP)
Presidente
The Organization Development Institute International,
Latin America
Board Member of The Organization Development Institute
– Worldwide